Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.4 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 15395 99590 57674 2026-06-01T20:17:40Z ~2026-32747-07 6227 PCOS is now called PMOS - name change May 2026 99590 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition | name = Polycystic ovary syndrome | synonym = Hyperandrogenic anovulation (HA),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kollmann M, Martins WP, Raine-Fenning N | title = Terms and thresholds for the ultrasound evaluation of the ovaries in women with hyperandrogenic anovulation | journal = Hum. Reprod. Update | volume = 20| issue = 3 | pages = 463–4 | year = 2014 | pmid = 24516084 | doi = 10.1093/humupd/dmu005 | doi-access = free }}</ref> polycystic ovarian disease, Stein–Leventhal syndrome | image = PCOS.jpg | image_size = | image_thumbtime = | alt = | caption = A polycystic ovary dem show for an ultrasound image top. | pronounce = | field = Gynecology | symptoms = Irregular menstrual periods, heavy periods, excess hair, acne, pelvic pain, difficulty getting pregnant, patches of thick, darker, velvety skin | complications = Type 2 diabetes, obesity, obstructive sleep apnea, heart disease, mood disorders, endometrial cancer | onset = | duration = Long term | types = | causes = Genetic den environmental factors | risks = Obesity, not enough exercise, family history | diagnosis = Based on no ovulation, high androgen levels, ovarian cysts | differential = Adrenal hyperplasia, hypothyroidism, high blood levels of prolactin | prevention = | treatment = Weight loss, exercise | medication = Birth control pills, metformin, anti-androgens | prognosis = | frequency = 2% to 20% of women of childbearing age | deaths = | named after = }} '''Polyendocrine metabolic ovarian syndrome (PMOS), previously polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)''', is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age.<ref name="Goodman2015">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goodman NF, Cobin RH, Futterweit W, Glueck JS, Legro RS, Carmina E |date=November 2015 |title=American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Endocrinology, and androgen excess and PCOS society disease state clinical review: guide to the best practices in the evaluation and treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome-part 1 |journal=Endocrine Practice |volume=21 |issue=11 |pages=1291–1300 |doi=10.4158/EP15748.DSC |pmid=26509855 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Not all women with this condition develop cysts for dema ovaries. Na de name originate from de observation of cysts wich dey form for de ovaries of sam women plus dis condition. However, dis no be a universal symptom wey e no be de underlying cause of de disorder.<ref name="Dunaif2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dunaif A, Fauser BC |date=November 2013 |title=Renaming PCOS--a two-state solution |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=98 |issue=11 |pages=4325–8 |doi=10.1210/jc.2013-2040 |pmc=3816269 |pmid=24009134 |quote=Around 20% of European women have polycystic ovaries (the prevalence is even higher in some other populations) but approximately two-thirds of these women do not have PCOS}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Khan MJ, Ullah A, Basit S |date=2019 |title=Genetic Basis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Current Perspectives |journal=Appl Clin Genet |volume=12 |issue= |pages=249–260 |doi=10.2147/TACG.S200341 |pmc=6935309 |pmid=31920361 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De primary characteristics of PCOS dey include hyperandrogenism, anovulation, insulin resistance, den neuroendocrine disruption.<ref name="Crespo2018">{{cite journal |vauthors=Crespo RP, Bachega TA, Mendonça BB, Gomes LG |date=June 2018 |title=An update of genetic basis of PCOS pathogenesis |journal=Archives of Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=352–361 |doi=10.20945/2359-3997000000049 |pmc=10118782 |pmid=29972435 |s2cid=49681196 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Women sanso fi experience irregular menstrual periods, heavy periods, excess hair, acne, pelvic pain, difficulty getting pregnant, den patches of darker skin.<ref>{{Cite web|last=CDC|date=15 May 2024|title=Diabetes and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/risk-factors/pcos-polycystic-ovary-syndrome.html|access-date=20 September 2024|website=Diabetes and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)}}</ref> ==Society den culture== === Public figures === Na chaw celebrities den public figures speak about dema experiences plus PCOS, wey dey include: * Victoria Beckham<ref>{{cite web|date=28 February 2002|title=Sarah Hall investigates polycystic ovary syndrome|url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2002/feb/28/healthandwellbeing.health|access-date=21 January 2022|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-date=29 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529161113/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2002/feb/28/healthandwellbeing.health|url-status=live}}</ref> * Maci Bookout<ref>{{Cite news |vauthors=Migdol E |title='Teen Mom' Star Nails the 'Lose-Lose' Side of Chronic Illness Doctors Don't Always Get |url=https://themighty.com/2018/02/maci-bookout-teen-mom-og-pcos/ |access-date=14 November 2022 |website=The Mighty |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119081441/https://themighty.com/2018/02/maci-bookout-teen-mom-og-pcos/ |url-status=live }}</ref> * Frankie Bridge<ref>{{cite web|title=All the celebrities who've opened up about life with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome|url=https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/body/health/g38290937/celebrities-pcos/|access-date=1 September 2022|website=Cosmopolitan|date=26 November 2021 |archive-date=1 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901164804/https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/body/health/g38290937/celebrities-pcos/|url-status=live}}</ref> * Harnaam Kaur<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Chowdhury J|title=What Every Woman Should Know About PCOS|url=https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2015/07/91099/harnaam-kaur-women-with-facial-hair-true-story-pcos|access-date=21 January 2022|website=Refinery29.com |archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121211312/https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2015/07/91099/harnaam-kaur-women-with-facial-hair-true-story-pcos|url-status=live}}</ref> * Jaime King<ref>{{cite web|title=Actress Jaime King on her investment in Allara, a chronic care platform for women|url=https://fortune.com/2022/01/23/actress-jaime-king-investment-chronic-care-allara/|access-date=1 September 2022|website=Fortune |archive-date=1 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901164511/https://fortune.com/2022/01/23/actress-jaime-king-investment-chronic-care-allara/|url-status=live}}</ref> * Chrisette Michele<ref>{{cite web|date=10 December 2015|title=Chrisette Michele Opens Up About Living With PCOS & No Longer Being Vegan - BlackDoctor.org - Where Wellness & Culture Connect|url=https://blackdoctor.org/chrisette-michele-pcos-vegan/|access-date=22 January 2022|website=BlackDoctor.org |archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122193239/https://blackdoctor.org/chrisette-michele-pcos-vegan/|url-status=live}}</ref> * Lea Michele<ref>{{cite web|title=Lea Michele On How PCOS Changed Her Relationship With Food: 'The Side Effects Can Be Brutal'|url=https://www.health.com/celebrities/lea-michele-interview|access-date=1 September 2022|website=Health Magazine |archive-date=1 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901164503/https://www.health.com/celebrities/lea-michele-interview|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Keke Palmer<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Natale N|date=17 November 2021|title=Keke Palmer Says PCOS Causes Facial Hair and Adult Acne|url=https://www.prevention.com/health/health-conditions/a38280615/keke-palmer-pcos-symptoms/|access-date=21 January 2022|website=Prevention |archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121203427/https://www.prevention.com/health/health-conditions/a38280615/keke-palmer-pcos-symptoms/|url-status=live}}</ref> * Sasha Pieterse<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Seemayer Z|title=Sasha Pieterse Tears Up Over Health Problems, Opens Up About Losing 15 Pounds Since Joining 'DWTS'|url=http://www.etonline.com/sasha-pieterse-tears-over-health-problems-opens-about-losing-15-pounds-joining-dwts-88109|website=Entertainment Tonight|access-date=27 September 2017|date=26 September 2017|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010091207/http://www.etonline.com/sasha-pieterse-tears-over-health-problems-opens-about-losing-15-pounds-joining-dwts-88109|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Mizoguchi K, Stern AB|date=5 October 2017|title=Sasha Pieterse Wows on People's Ones to Watch Red Carpet as She Reveals Why She's 'So Thankful to DWTS'|url=https://people.com/tv/sasha-pieterse-medical-condition-response-amazing-dwts/|access-date=11 December 2021|website=people.com |archive-date=11 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211192745/https://people.com/tv/sasha-pieterse-medical-condition-response-amazing-dwts/|url-status=live}}</ref> * Florence Pugh<ref>{{cite web|last1=Shultz|first1=Cara Lynn|title=Florence Pugh Says It Was a 'Mind-Boggling Realization' to Learn She Had to Freeze Her Eggs at 27 |url=https://people.com/florence-pugh-froze-eggs-27-pcos-endometriosis-she-md-podcast-8746962|website=People|date=19 November 2024}}</ref> * Daisy Ridley<ref>{{cite web|title='Star Wars: The Force Awakens' Actress Opens Up About Painful Disorder|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/star-wars-force-awakens-actress-opens-painful-disorder/story?id=39745956|access-date=21 January 2022|website=ABC News |archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121203417/https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/star-wars-force-awakens-actress-opens-painful-disorder/story?id=39745956|url-status=live}}</ref> * Romee Strijd<ref>{{cite web|title=Romee Strijd's Pregnancy Announcement Comes With an Honest Message About Reproductive Health|url=https://www.vogue.com/article/romee-strijd-pregnancy-announcement |access-date=1 September 2022|website=Vogue|date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=1 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901163704/https://www.vogue.com/article/romee-strijd-pregnancy-announcement |url-status=live}}</ref> * Lee Tilghman<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thecut.com/2020/03/wellness-influencer-lee-from-americas-story.html|title=Lee's American Dream|vauthors=Silman A|date=10 March 2020|work=The Cut|publisher=New York Media|access-date=12 April 2023|archive-date=12 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412214556/https://www.thecut.com/2020/03/wellness-influencer-lee-from-americas-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ==References== [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] <references /> == Read further == * {{cite journal | vauthors = Bremer AA | title = Polycystic ovary syndrome in the pediatric population | journal = Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 375–394 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20939704 | pmc = 3125559 | doi = 10.1089/met.2010.0039 }} * {{cite web |title=Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) |date=31 January 2017 |url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/pcos |publisher=Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development |access-date=19 November 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022214043/https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/pcos |url-status=live }} == External links == {{Commons}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Polycystic Ovary Syndrome}} [[Category:Endocrine gonad disorders]] [[Category:Endocrine-related cutaneous conditions]] [[Category:Gynaecologic disorders]] [[Category:Gynaecological endocrinology]] [[Category:Human female endocrine system]] [[Category:Human reproduction]] [[Category:Syndromes plus obesity]] [[Category:Syndromes insyd females]] co1ft38ipa4k195mctymbjjhqfxrfwa 99591 99590 2026-06-01T20:18:43Z ~2026-32747-07 6227 PCOS is now called PMOS - name change May 2026 99591 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition | name = Polyendocrine Metabolic Ovarian Syndrome (previously polycystic ovary syndrome) | synonym = Hyperandrogenic anovulation (HA),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kollmann M, Martins WP, Raine-Fenning N | title = Terms and thresholds for the ultrasound evaluation of the ovaries in women with hyperandrogenic anovulation | journal = Hum. Reprod. Update | volume = 20| issue = 3 | pages = 463–4 | year = 2014 | pmid = 24516084 | doi = 10.1093/humupd/dmu005 | doi-access = free }}</ref> polycystic ovarian disease, Stein–Leventhal syndrome | image = PCOS.jpg | image_size = | image_thumbtime = | alt = | caption = A polycystic ovary dem show for an ultrasound image top. | pronounce = | field = Gynecology | symptoms = Irregular menstrual periods, heavy periods, excess hair, acne, pelvic pain, difficulty getting pregnant, patches of thick, darker, velvety skin | complications = Type 2 diabetes, obesity, obstructive sleep apnea, heart disease, mood disorders, endometrial cancer | onset = | duration = Long term | types = | causes = Genetic den environmental factors | risks = Obesity, not enough exercise, family history | diagnosis = Based on no ovulation, high androgen levels, ovarian cysts | differential = Adrenal hyperplasia, hypothyroidism, high blood levels of prolactin | prevention = | treatment = Weight loss, exercise | medication = Birth control pills, metformin, anti-androgens | prognosis = | frequency = 2% to 20% of women of childbearing age | deaths = | named after = }} '''Polyendocrine metabolic ovarian syndrome (PMOS), previously polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)''', is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age.<ref name="Goodman2015">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goodman NF, Cobin RH, Futterweit W, Glueck JS, Legro RS, Carmina E |date=November 2015 |title=American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Endocrinology, and androgen excess and PCOS society disease state clinical review: guide to the best practices in the evaluation and treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome-part 1 |journal=Endocrine Practice |volume=21 |issue=11 |pages=1291–1300 |doi=10.4158/EP15748.DSC |pmid=26509855 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Not all women with this condition develop cysts for dema ovaries. Na de name originate from de observation of cysts wich dey form for de ovaries of sam women plus dis condition. However, dis no be a universal symptom wey e no be de underlying cause of de disorder.<ref name="Dunaif2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dunaif A, Fauser BC |date=November 2013 |title=Renaming PCOS--a two-state solution |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=98 |issue=11 |pages=4325–8 |doi=10.1210/jc.2013-2040 |pmc=3816269 |pmid=24009134 |quote=Around 20% of European women have polycystic ovaries (the prevalence is even higher in some other populations) but approximately two-thirds of these women do not have PCOS}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Khan MJ, Ullah A, Basit S |date=2019 |title=Genetic Basis of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Current Perspectives |journal=Appl Clin Genet |volume=12 |issue= |pages=249–260 |doi=10.2147/TACG.S200341 |pmc=6935309 |pmid=31920361 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De primary characteristics of PCOS dey include hyperandrogenism, anovulation, insulin resistance, den neuroendocrine disruption.<ref name="Crespo2018">{{cite journal |vauthors=Crespo RP, Bachega TA, Mendonça BB, Gomes LG |date=June 2018 |title=An update of genetic basis of PCOS pathogenesis |journal=Archives of Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=352–361 |doi=10.20945/2359-3997000000049 |pmc=10118782 |pmid=29972435 |s2cid=49681196 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Women sanso fi experience irregular menstrual periods, heavy periods, excess hair, acne, pelvic pain, difficulty getting pregnant, den patches of darker skin.<ref>{{Cite web|last=CDC|date=15 May 2024|title=Diabetes and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)|url=https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/risk-factors/pcos-polycystic-ovary-syndrome.html|access-date=20 September 2024|website=Diabetes and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)}}</ref> ==Society den culture== === Public figures === Na chaw celebrities den public figures speak about dema experiences plus PCOS, wey dey include: * Victoria Beckham<ref>{{cite web|date=28 February 2002|title=Sarah Hall investigates polycystic ovary syndrome|url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2002/feb/28/healthandwellbeing.health|access-date=21 January 2022|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-date=29 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529161113/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2002/feb/28/healthandwellbeing.health|url-status=live}}</ref> * Maci Bookout<ref>{{Cite news |vauthors=Migdol E |title='Teen Mom' Star Nails the 'Lose-Lose' Side of Chronic Illness Doctors Don't Always Get |url=https://themighty.com/2018/02/maci-bookout-teen-mom-og-pcos/ |access-date=14 November 2022 |website=The Mighty |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119081441/https://themighty.com/2018/02/maci-bookout-teen-mom-og-pcos/ |url-status=live }}</ref> * Frankie Bridge<ref>{{cite web|title=All the celebrities who've opened up about life with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome|url=https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/body/health/g38290937/celebrities-pcos/|access-date=1 September 2022|website=Cosmopolitan|date=26 November 2021 |archive-date=1 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901164804/https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/body/health/g38290937/celebrities-pcos/|url-status=live}}</ref> * Harnaam Kaur<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Chowdhury J|title=What Every Woman Should Know About PCOS|url=https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2015/07/91099/harnaam-kaur-women-with-facial-hair-true-story-pcos|access-date=21 January 2022|website=Refinery29.com |archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121211312/https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2015/07/91099/harnaam-kaur-women-with-facial-hair-true-story-pcos|url-status=live}}</ref> * Jaime King<ref>{{cite web|title=Actress Jaime King on her investment in Allara, a chronic care platform for women|url=https://fortune.com/2022/01/23/actress-jaime-king-investment-chronic-care-allara/|access-date=1 September 2022|website=Fortune |archive-date=1 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901164511/https://fortune.com/2022/01/23/actress-jaime-king-investment-chronic-care-allara/|url-status=live}}</ref> * Chrisette Michele<ref>{{cite web|date=10 December 2015|title=Chrisette Michele Opens Up About Living With PCOS & No Longer Being Vegan - BlackDoctor.org - Where Wellness & Culture Connect|url=https://blackdoctor.org/chrisette-michele-pcos-vegan/|access-date=22 January 2022|website=BlackDoctor.org |archive-date=22 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122193239/https://blackdoctor.org/chrisette-michele-pcos-vegan/|url-status=live}}</ref> * Lea Michele<ref>{{cite web|title=Lea Michele On How PCOS Changed Her Relationship With Food: 'The Side Effects Can Be Brutal'|url=https://www.health.com/celebrities/lea-michele-interview|access-date=1 September 2022|website=Health Magazine |archive-date=1 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901164503/https://www.health.com/celebrities/lea-michele-interview|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Keke Palmer<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Natale N|date=17 November 2021|title=Keke Palmer Says PCOS Causes Facial Hair and Adult Acne|url=https://www.prevention.com/health/health-conditions/a38280615/keke-palmer-pcos-symptoms/|access-date=21 January 2022|website=Prevention |archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121203427/https://www.prevention.com/health/health-conditions/a38280615/keke-palmer-pcos-symptoms/|url-status=live}}</ref> * Sasha Pieterse<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Seemayer Z|title=Sasha Pieterse Tears Up Over Health Problems, Opens Up About Losing 15 Pounds Since Joining 'DWTS'|url=http://www.etonline.com/sasha-pieterse-tears-over-health-problems-opens-about-losing-15-pounds-joining-dwts-88109|website=Entertainment Tonight|access-date=27 September 2017|date=26 September 2017|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010091207/http://www.etonline.com/sasha-pieterse-tears-over-health-problems-opens-about-losing-15-pounds-joining-dwts-88109|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Mizoguchi K, Stern AB|date=5 October 2017|title=Sasha Pieterse Wows on People's Ones to Watch Red Carpet as She Reveals Why She's 'So Thankful to DWTS'|url=https://people.com/tv/sasha-pieterse-medical-condition-response-amazing-dwts/|access-date=11 December 2021|website=people.com |archive-date=11 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211192745/https://people.com/tv/sasha-pieterse-medical-condition-response-amazing-dwts/|url-status=live}}</ref> * Florence Pugh<ref>{{cite web|last1=Shultz|first1=Cara Lynn|title=Florence Pugh Says It Was a 'Mind-Boggling Realization' to Learn She Had to Freeze Her Eggs at 27 |url=https://people.com/florence-pugh-froze-eggs-27-pcos-endometriosis-she-md-podcast-8746962|website=People|date=19 November 2024}}</ref> * Daisy Ridley<ref>{{cite web|title='Star Wars: The Force Awakens' Actress Opens Up About Painful Disorder|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/star-wars-force-awakens-actress-opens-painful-disorder/story?id=39745956|access-date=21 January 2022|website=ABC News |archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121203417/https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/star-wars-force-awakens-actress-opens-painful-disorder/story?id=39745956|url-status=live}}</ref> * Romee Strijd<ref>{{cite web|title=Romee Strijd's Pregnancy Announcement Comes With an Honest Message About Reproductive Health|url=https://www.vogue.com/article/romee-strijd-pregnancy-announcement |access-date=1 September 2022|website=Vogue|date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=1 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901163704/https://www.vogue.com/article/romee-strijd-pregnancy-announcement |url-status=live}}</ref> * Lee Tilghman<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thecut.com/2020/03/wellness-influencer-lee-from-americas-story.html|title=Lee's American Dream|vauthors=Silman A|date=10 March 2020|work=The Cut|publisher=New York Media|access-date=12 April 2023|archive-date=12 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412214556/https://www.thecut.com/2020/03/wellness-influencer-lee-from-americas-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ==References== [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] <references /> == Read further == * {{cite journal | vauthors = Bremer AA | title = Polycystic ovary syndrome in the pediatric population | journal = Metabolic Syndrome and Related Disorders | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 375–394 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20939704 | pmc = 3125559 | doi = 10.1089/met.2010.0039 }} * {{cite web |title=Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) |date=31 January 2017 |url=https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/pcos |publisher=Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development |access-date=19 November 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022214043/https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/pcos |url-status=live }} == External links == {{Commons}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Polycystic Ovary Syndrome}} [[Category:Endocrine gonad disorders]] [[Category:Endocrine-related cutaneous conditions]] [[Category:Gynaecologic disorders]] [[Category:Gynaecological endocrinology]] [[Category:Human female endocrine system]] [[Category:Human reproduction]] [[Category:Syndromes plus obesity]] [[Category:Syndromes insyd females]] 3dnrrde5pywxxtur34itp2oygmstvwh 2 22602 99612 83242 2026-06-01T23:22:31Z PK2 863 add sandbox pages for new Wikipedia editions 99612 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" style="font-size:85%" |+ Pages I have in my sandbox |- | &nbsp; |} ;<div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; font-size:85%">My sandbox pages in different languages by language code</div> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ A |- | [[:ab:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]<br />(code: <code>ab</code>) | [[:ace:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Acehnese language|Acehnese]]<br />(code: <code>ace</code>) | [[:ady:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Adyghe language|Adyghe]]<br />(code: <code>ady</code>) | [[:af:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Afrikaans|Afrikaans]]<br />(code: <code>af</code>) | [[:als:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Alemannic German|Alemannic German]]<br />(code: <code>als</code>) | [[:alt:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Southern Altai language|Southern Altai]]<br />(code: <code>alt</code>) | [[:am:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Amharic|Amharic]]<br />(code: <code>am</code>) | [[:ami:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Amis language|Amis]]<br />(code: <code>ami</code>) | [[:an:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Aragonese language|Aragonese]]<br />(code: <code>an</code>) | [[:ang:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Old English|Old English]]<br />(code: <code>ang</code>) |- | [[:ann:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Obolo language|Obolo]]<br />(code: <code>ann</code>) | [[:anp:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Angika|Angika]]<br />(code: <code>anp</code>) | [[:ar:User:PK2/ملعب|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Arabic|Arabic]]<br />(code: <code>ar</code>) | [[:arc:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Aramaic|Aramaic]] ([[:en:Syriac language|Syriac]])<br />(code: <code>arc</code>) | [[:ary:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Moroccan Arabic|Moroccan Arabic]]<br />(code: <code>ary</code>) | [[:arz:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Egyptian Arabic|Egyptian Arabic]]<br />(code: <code>arz</code>) | [[:as:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Assamese language|Assamese]]<br />(code: <code>as</code>) | [[:ast:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Asturleonese language|Asturleonese]] ([[:en:Asturian language|Asturian]])<br />(code: <code>ast</code>) | [[:atj:User:PK2/Kokwetcitasinahikan|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Atikamekw language|Atikamekw]]<br />(code: <code>atj</code>) | [[:av:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Avar language|Avar]]<br />(code: <code>av</code>) |- | [[:avk:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kotava|Kotava]]<br />(code: <code>avk</code>) | [[:awa:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Awadhi language|Awadhi]]<br />(code: <code>awa</code>) | [[:ay:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Aymara language|Aymara]]<br />(code: <code>ay</code>) | [[:az:User:PK2/Qaralama|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]<br />(code: <code>az</code>) | [[:azb:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Azerbaijani language#South Azerbaijani|South Azerbaijani]]<br />(code: <code>azb</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ B |- | [[:ba:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Bashkir language|Bashkir]]<br />(code: <code>ba</code>) | [[:ban:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Balinese language|Balinese]]<br />(code: <code>ban</code>) | [[:bar:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Bavarian language|Bavarian]]<br />(code: <code>bar</code>) | [[:bat-smg:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Samogitian language|Samogitian]]<br />(code: <code>bat-smg</code>) | [[:bbc:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Toba Batak language|Toba Batak]]<br />(code: <code>bbc</code>) | [[:bcl:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Central Bikol|Central Bikol]]<br />(code: <code>bcl</code>) | [[:bdr:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Sama–Bajaw languages|West Coast Bajau]]<br />(code: <code>bdr</code>) | [[:be:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Belarusian language|Belarusian]]<br />(code: <code>be</code>) | [[:be-tarask:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Belarusian language|Belarusian]] ([[:en:Taraškievica|Taraškievica]])<br />(code: <code>be-tarask</code>) | [[:bew:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Betawi language|Betawi]]<br />(code: <code>bew</code>) |- | [[:bg:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]<br />(code: <code>bg</code>) | [[:bh:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Bihari languages|Bihari]] ([[:en:Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]])<br />(code: <code>bh</code>) | [[:bi:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Bislama|Bislama]]<br />(code: <code>bi</code>) | [[:bjn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Banjarese language|Banjarese]]<br />(code: <code>bjn</code>) | [[:blk:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Pa'O language|Pa'O]]<br />(code: <code>blk</code>) | [[:bm:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Bambara language|Bambara]]<br />(code: <code>bm</code>) | [[:bn:User:PK2/খেলাঘর|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Bengali language|Bengali]]<br />(code: <code>bn</code>) | [[:bo:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Central Tibetan|Central Tibetan]] ([[:en:Lhasa Tibetan|Lhasa Tibetan]])<br />(code: <code>bo</code>) | [[:bpy:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Bishnupriya Manipuri|Bishnupriya Manipuri]]<br />(code: <code>bpy</code>) | [[:br:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Breton language|Breton]]<br />(code: <code>br</code>) |- | [[:bs:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Bosnian language|Bosnian]]<br />(code: <code>bs</code>) | [[:btm:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Mandailing Batak language|Mandailing Batak]]<br />(code: <code>btm</code>) | [[:bug:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Buginese language|Buginese]]<br />(code: <code>bug</code>) | [[:bxr:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Buryat language|Buryat]] (Russia Buriat)<br />(code: <code>bxr</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ C |- | [[:ca:User:PK2/proves|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Catalan language|Catalan]]<br />(code: <code>ca</code>) | [[:cbk-zam:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Chavacano|Chavacano]] (Zamboanga)<br />(code: <code>cbk-zam</code>) | [[:cdo:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Eastern Min|Eastern Min]]<br />(code: <code>cdo</code>) | [[:ce:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Chechen language|Chechen]]<br />(code: <code>ce</code>) | [[:ceb:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Cebuano language|Cebuano]]<br />(code: <code>ceb</code>) | [[:ch:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Chamorro language|Chamorro]]<br />(code: <code>ch</code>) | [[:chr:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Cherokee language|Cherokee]]<br />(code: <code>chr</code>) | [[:chy:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Cheyenne language|Cheyenne]]<br />(code: <code>chy</code>) |- | [[:ckb:User:PK2/خۆڵەپەتانێ|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kurdish language|Kurdish]] ([[:en:Sorani|Sorani]])<br />(code: <code>ckb</code>) | [[:co:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Corsican language|Corsican]]<br />(code: <code>co</code>) | [[:crh:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Crimean Tatar language|Crimean Tatar]]<br />(code: <code>crh</code>) | [[:cs:User:PK2/Pískoviště|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Czech language|Czech]]<br />(code: <code>cs</code>) | [[:csb:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kashubian language|Kashubian]]<br />(code: <code>csb</code>) | [[:cu:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Old Church Slavonic|Old Church Slavonic]]<br />(code: <code>cu</code>) | [[:cv:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Chuvash language|Chuvash]]<br />(code: <code>cv</code>) | [[:cy:User:PK2/Pwll Tywod|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Welsh language|Welsh]]<br />(code: <code>cy</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ D |- | [[:da:User:PK2/sandkasse|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Danish language|Danish]]<br />(code: <code>da</code>) | [[:dag:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Dagbani language|Dagbani]]<br />(code: <code>dag</code>) | [[:de:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:German language|German]]<br />(code: <code>de</code>) | [[:dga:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Dagaare language|Dagaare]]<br />(code: <code>dga</code>) | [[:din:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Dinka language|Dinka]]<br />(code: <code>din</code>) | [[:diq:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Zaza language|Zaza]]<br />(code: <code>diq</code>) | [[:dsb:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]<br />(code: <code>dsb</code>) | [[:dtp:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Dusun language|Dusun]]<br />(code: <code>dtp</code>) | [[:dty:User:PK2/प्रयोगस्थल|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Doteli|Doteli]]<br />(code: <code>dty</code>) | [[:dv:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Maldivian language|Maldivian]]<br />(code: <code>dv</code>) | [[:dz:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Dzongkha|Dzongkha]]<br />(code: <code>dz</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ E |- | [[:ee:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Ewe language|Ewe]]<br />(code: <code>ee</code>) | [[:el:User:PK2/πρόχειρο|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Greek language|Greek]]<br />(code: <code>el</code>) | [[:eml:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Emilian–Romagnol|Emilian–Romagnol]]<br />(code: <code>eml</code>) | [[:en:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:English language|English]]<br />(code: <code>en</code>) | [[:eo:User:PK2/provejo|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Esperanto|Esperanto]]<br />(code: <code>eo</code>) | [[:es:User:PK2/Taller|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Spanish language|Spanish]]<br />(code: <code>es</code>) | [[:et:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Estonian language|Estonian]]<br />(code: <code>et</code>) | [[:eu:User:PK2/Proba orria|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Basque language|Basque]]<br />(code: <code>eu</code>) | [[:ext:User:PK2/obraol|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]]<br />(code: <code>ext</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ F |- | [[:fa:User:PK2/صفحه تمرین|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Persian language|Persian]]<br />(code: <code>fa</code>) | [[:fat:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Akan language|Akan]] ([[:en:Fante dialect|Fante]])<br />(code: <code>fat</code>) | [[:ff:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Fula language|Fula]]<br />(code: <code>ff</code>) | [[:fi:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Finnish language|Finnish]]<br />(code: <code>fi</code>) | [[:fiu-vro:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Võro language|Võro]]<br />(code: <code>fiu-vro</code>) | [[:fj:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Fijian language|Fijian]]<br />(code: <code>fj</code>) | [[:fo:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Faroese language|Faroese]]<br />(code: <code>fo</code>) | [[:fon:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Fon language|Fon]]<br />(code: <code>fon</code>) | [[:fr:User:PK2/Brouillon|/sandbox]] in [[:en:French language|French]]<br />(code: <code>fr</code>) | [[:frp:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Franco-Provençal|Franco-Provençal]]<br />(code: <code>frp</code>) | [[:frr:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:North Frisian language|North Frisian]]<br />(code: <code>frr</code>) | [[:fur:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Friulian language|Friulian]]<br />(code: <code>fur</code>) | [[:fy:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:West Frisian language|West Frisian]]<br />(code: <code>fy</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ G |- | [[:ga:User:PK2/Clár Dubh|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Irish language|Irish]]<br />(code: <code>ga</code>) | [[:gag:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Gagauz language|Gagauz]]<br />(code: <code>gag</code>) | [[:gan:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Gan Chinese|Gan Chinese]]<br />(code: <code>gan</code>) | [[:gcr:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:French Guianese Creole|French Guianese Creole]]<br />(code: <code>gcr</code>) | [[:gd:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Scottish Gaelic|Scottish Gaelic]]<br />(code: <code>gd</code>) | [[:gl:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Galician language|Galician]]<br />(code: <code>gl</code>) | [[:glk:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Gilaki language|Gilaki]]<br />(code: <code>glk</code>) | [[:gn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Guarani language|Guarani]]<br />(code: <code>gn</code>) | [[:gom:User:PK2/proiogpan|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Konkani language|Konkani]] (Goan Konkani)<br />(code: <code>gom</code>) |- | [[:gor:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Gorontalo language|Gorontalo]]<br />(code: <code>gor</code>) | [[:got:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Gothic language|Gothic]]<br />(code: <code>got</code>) | [[:gpe:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Ghanaian Pidgin English|Ghanaian Pidgin English]]<br />(code: <code>gpe</code>) | [[:gu:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Gujarati language|Gujarati]]<br />(code: <code>gu</code>) | [[:guc:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Wayuu language|Wayuu]]<br />(code: <code>guc</code>) | [[:gur:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Farefare language|Farefare]]<br />(code: <code>gur</code>) | [[:guw:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Gun language|Gun]]<br />(code: <code>guw</code>) | [[:gv:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Manx language|Manx]]<br />(code: <code>gv</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ H |- | [[:ha:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Hausa language|Hausa]]<br />(code: <code>ha</code>) | [[:hak:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Hakka Chinese|Hakka Chinese]]<br />(code: <code>hak</code>) | [[:haw:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]<br />(code: <code>haw</code>) | [[:he:User:PK2/טיוטה|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Hebrew language|Hebrew]]<br />(code: <code>he</code>) | [[:hi:User:PK2/प्रयोगपृष्ठ|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Hindi|Hindi]]<br />(code: <code>hi</code>) | [[:hif:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Fiji Hindi|Fiji Hindi]]<br />(code: <code>hif</code>) | [[:hr:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Croatian language|Croatian]]<br />(code: <code>hr</code>) | [[:hsb:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]]<br />(code: <code>hsb</code>) | [[:ht:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Haitian Creole|Haitian Creole]]<br />(code: <code>ht</code>) | [[:hu:User:PK2/próbalap|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Hungarian language|Hungarian]]<br />(code: <code>hu</code>) | [[:hy:User:PK2/Ավազարկղ|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Armenian language|Armenian]] ([[:en:Eastern Armenian|Eastern Armenian]])<br />(code: <code>hy</code>) | [[:hyw:User:PK2/Սեւագրութիւն|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Western Armenian|Western Armenian]]<br />(code: <code>hyw</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ I |- | [[:ia:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Interlingua|Interlingua]]<br />(code: <code>ia</code>) | [[:iba:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Iban language|Iban]]<br />(code: <code>iba</code>) | [[:id:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Indonesian language|Indonesian]]<br />(code: <code>id</code>) | [[:ie:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Interlingue|Interlingue]]<br />(code: <code>ie</code>) | [[:ig:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Igbo language|Igbo]]<br />(code: <code>ig</code>) | [[:igl:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Igala language|Igala]]<br />(code: <code>igl</code>) | [[:ik:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Iñupiaq language|Iñupiaq]]<br />(code: <code>ik</code>) | [[:ilo:User:PK2/pagipadasan|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Ilocano language|Ilocano]]<br />(code: <code>ilo</code>) | [[:inh:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Ingush language|Ingush]]<br />(code: <code>inh</code>) | [[:io:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Ido|Ido]]<br />(code: <code>io</code>) | [[:is:User:PK2/sandkassi|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Icelandic language|Icelandic]]<br />(code: <code>is</code>) | [[:it:User:PK2/Sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Italian language|Italian]]<br />(code: <code>it</code>) | [[:iu:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Inuktitut|Inuktitut]]<br />(code: <code>iu</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ J |- | [[:ja:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Japanese language|Japanese]]<br />(code: <code>ja</code>) | [[:jam:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Jamaican Patois|Jamaican Patois]]<br />(code: <code>jam</code>) | [[:jbo:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Lojban|Lojban]]<br />(code: <code>jbo</code>) | [[:jv:User:PK2/bak wedhi|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Javanese language|Javanese]]<br />(code: <code>jv</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ K |- | [[:ka:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Georgian language|Georgian]]<br />(code: <code>ka</code>) | [[:kaa:User:PK2/qaralama|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Karakalpak language|Karakalpak]]<br />(code: <code>kaa</code>) | [[:kab:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kabyle language|Kabyle]]<br />(code: <code>kab</code>) | [[:kai:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Karai-karai|Karai-karai]]<br />(code: <code>kai</code>) | [[:kaj:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Jju language|Jju]]<br />(code: <code>kaj</code>) | [[:kbd:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kabardian language|Kabardian]]<br />(code: <code>kbd</code>) | [[:kbp:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kabiye language|Kabiye]]<br />(code: <code>kbp</code>) | [[:kcg:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tyap|Tyap]]<br />(code: <code>kcg</code>) | [[:kg:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kongo language|Kongo]]<br />(code: <code>kg</code>) | [[:kge:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Komering language|Komering]]<br />(code: <code>kge</code>) | [[:ki:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kikuyu language|Kikuyu]]<br />(code: <code>ki</code>) | [[:kk:User:PK2/зертхана|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kazakh language|Kazakh]]<br />(code: <code>kk</code>) | [[:km:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Khmer language|Khmer]]<br />(code: <code>km</code>) |- | [[:kn:User:PK2/ಪ್ರಯೋಗಪುಟ|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kannada|Kannada]]<br />(code: <code>kn</code>) | [[:knc:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Central Kanuri|Central Kanuri]]<br />(code: <code>knc</code>) | [[:ko:User:PK2/연습장|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Korean language|Korean]]<br />(code: <code>ko</code>) | [[:koi:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Komi-Permyak language|Komi-Permyak]]<br />(code: <code>koi</code>) | [[:krc:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Karachay-Balkar|Karachay-Balkar]]<br />(code: <code>krc</code>) | [[:ks:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]<br />(code: <code>ks</code>) | [[:ksh:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]]<br />(code: <code>ksh</code>) | [[:ku:User:PK2/ceribandin|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kurdish language|Kurdish]] ([[:en:Kurmanji|Kurmanji]])<br />(code: <code>ku</code>) | [[:kus:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kusaal language|Kusaal]]<br />(code: <code>kus</code>) | [[:kv:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Komi language|Komi]]<br />(code: <code>kv</code>) | [[:kw:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Cornish language|Cornish]]<br />(code: <code>kw</code>) | [[:ky:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]<br />(code: <code>ky</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ L |- | [[:la:User:PK2/Harenarium|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Latin|Latin]]<br />(code: <code>la</code>) | [[:lad:User:PK2/Kutí de prova|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Judaeo-Spanish|Judaeo-Spanish]]<br />(code: <code>lad</code>) | [[:lb:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Luxembourgish|Luxembourgish]]<br />(code: <code>lb</code>) | [[:lbe:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Lak language|Lak]]<br />(code: <code>lbe</code>) | [[:lez:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Lezgian language|Lezgian]]<br />(code: <code>lez</code>) | [[:lfn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Lingua Franca Nova|Lingua Franca Nova]]<br />(code: <code>lfn</code>) | [[:lg:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Luganda|Luganda]]<br />(code: <code>lg</code>) | [[:li:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Limburgish|Limburgish]]<br />(code: <code>li</code>) |- | [[:lij:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Ligurian language|Ligurian]]<br />(code: <code>lij</code>) | [[:lld:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Ladin language|Ladin]]<br />(code: <code>lld</code>) | [[:lmo:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Lombard language|Lombard]]<br />(code: <code>lmo</code>) | [[:ln:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Lingala|Lingala]]<br />(code: <code>ln</code>) | [[:lo:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Lao language|Lao]]<br />(code: <code>lo</code>) | [[:lt:User:PK2/juodraštis|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]<br />(code: <code>lt</code>) | [[:ltg:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Latgalian language|Latgalian]]<br />(code: <code>ltg</code>) | [[:lv:User:PK2/Smilšu kaste|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Latvian language|Latvian]]<br />(code: <code>lv</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ M |- | [[:mad:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Madurese language|Madurese]]<br />(code: <code>mad</code>) | [[:mai:User:PK2/प्रयोगपृष्ठ|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Maithili language|Maithili]]<br />(code: <code>mai</code>) | [[:map-bms:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Javanese language|Javanese]] ([[:en:Banyumasan dialect|Banyumasan]])<br />(code: <code>map-bms</code>) | [[:mdf:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Moksha language|Moksha]]<br />(code: <code>mdf</code>) | [[:mg:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Malagasy language|Malagasy]]<br />(code: <code>mg</code>) | [[:mhr:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Meadow Mari language|Meadow Mari]]<br />(code: <code>mhr</code>) | [[:mi:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Māori language|Māori]]<br />(code: <code>mi</code>) | [[:min:User:PK2/bak kasiak|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Minangkabau language|Minangkabau]]<br />(code: <code>min</code>) | [[:mk:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Macedonian language|Macedonian]]<br />(code: <code>mk</code>) | [[:ml:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Malayalam|Malayalam]]<br />(code: <code>ml</code>) | [[:mn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Mongolian language|Mongolian]]<br />(code: <code>mn</code>) |- | [[:mni:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Meitei language|Meitei]]<br />(code: <code>mni</code>) | [[:mnw:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Mon language|Mon]]<br />(code: <code>mnw</code>) | [[:m:mos:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Mooré|Mooré]]<br />(code: <code>mos</code>) | [[:mr:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Marathi language|Marathi]]<br />(code: <code>mr</code>) | [[:mrj:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Hill Mari language|Hill Mari]]<br />(code: <code>mrj</code>) | [[:ms:User:PK2/Kotak pasir|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Malay language|Malay]]<br />(code: <code>ms</code>) | [[:mt:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Maltese language|Maltese]]<br />(code: <code>mt</code>) | [[:mwl:User:PK2/Testes|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Mirandese language|Mirandese]]<br />(code: <code>mwl</code>) | [[:my:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Burmese language|Burmese]]<br />(code: <code>my</code>) | [[:myv:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Erzya language|Erzya]]<br />(code: <code>myv</code>) | [[:mzn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Mazanderani language|Mazanderani]]<br />(code: <code>mzn</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ N |- | [[:nah:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Nahuatl|Nahuatl]]<br />(code: <code>nah</code>) | [[:nap:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]]<br />(code: <code>nap</code>) | [[:nds:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Low German|Low German]]<br />(code: <code>nds</code>) | [[:nds-nl:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Dutch Low Saxon|Dutch Low Saxon]]<br />(code: <code>nds-nl</code>) | [[:ne:User:PK2/प्रयोगस्थल|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Nepali language|Nepali]]<br />(code: <code>ne</code>) | [[:new:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Newar language|Newar]]<br />(code: <code>new</code>) | [[:nia:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Nias language|Nias]]<br />(code: <code>nia</code>) | [[:nl:User:PK2/Kladblok|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Dutch language|Dutch]]<br />(code: <code>nl</code>) | [[:nn:User:PK2/sandkasse|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ([[:en:Nynorsk|Nynorsk]])<br />(code: <code>nn</code>) |- | [[:no:User:PK2/sandkasse|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ([[:en:Bokmål|Bokmål]])<br />(code: <code>no</code>) | [[:nov:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Novial|Novial]]<br />(code: <code>nov</code>) | [[:nqo:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:N'Ko language|N'Ko]]<br />(code: <code>nqo</code>) | [[:nr:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Southern Ndebele language|Southern Ndebele]]<br />(code: <code>nr</code>) | [[:nrm:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Norman language|Norman]]<br />(code: <code>nrm</code>) | [[:nso:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Northern Sotho|Northern Sotho]]<br />(code: <code>nso</code>) | [[:nup:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Nupe language|Nupe]]<br />(code: <code>nup</code>) | [[:nv:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Navajo language|Navajo]]<br />(code: <code>nv</code>) | [[:ny:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Chewa language|Chewa]]<br />(code: <code>ny</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ O |- | [[:oc:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Occitan language|Occitan]]<br />(code: <code>oc</code>) | [[:olo:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Livvi-Karelian language|Livvi-Karelian]]<br />(code: <code>olo</code>) | [[:om:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Oromo language|Oromo]]<br />(code: <code>om</code>) | [[:or:User:PK2/ପରଖଘର|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Odia language|Odia]]<br />(code: <code>or</code>) | [[:os:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Ossetian language|Ossetian]]<br />(code: <code>os</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ P |- | [[:pa:User:PK2/ਕੱਚਾ ਖ਼ਾਕਾ|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Punjabi language|Punjabi]]<br />(code: <code>pa</code>) | [[:pag:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Pangasinan language|Pangasinan]]<br />(code: <code>pag</code>) | [[:pam:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kapampangan language|Kapampangan]]<br />(code: <code>pam</code>) | [[:pap:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Papiamento|Papiamento]]<br />(code: <code>pap</code>) | [[:pcd:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Picard language|Picard]]<br />(code: <code>pcd</code>) | [[:pcm:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Nigerian Pidgin|Nigerian Pidgin]]<br />(code: <code>pcm</code>) | [[:pdc:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]]<br />(code: <code>pdc</code>) | [[:pfl:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Palatine German dialects|Palatine German]]<br />(code: <code>pfl</code>) | [[:pi:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Pali|Pali]]<br />(code: <code>pi</code>) |- | [[:pl:User:PK2/brudnopis|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Polish language|Polish]]<br />(code: <code>pl</code>) | [[:pms:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Piedmontese language|Piedmontese]]<br />(code: <code>pms</code>) | [[:pnb:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (Western Punjabi)<br />(code: <code>pnb</code>) | [[:pnt:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Pontic Greek|Pontic Greek]]<br />(code: <code>pnt</code>) | [[:ppl:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Nawat language|Nawat]]<br />(code: <code>ppl</code>) | [[:ps:User:PK2/ازمون‌مخ|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Pashto|Pashto]]<br />(code: <code>ps</code>) | [[:pt:User:PK2/Testes|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Portuguese language|Portuguese]]<br />(code: <code>pt</code>) | [[:pwn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Paiwan language|Paiwan]]<br />(code: <code>pwn</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ Q |- | [[:qu:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Quechuan languages|Quechua]] ([[:en:Southern Quechua|Southern Quechua]])<br />(code: <code>qu</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ R |- | [[:rki:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Rakhine language|Rakhine]]<br />(code: <code>rki</code>) | [[:rm:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Romansh language|Romansh]]<br />(code: <code>rm</code>) | [[:rmy:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Romani language|Romani]] ([[:en:Vlax Romani language|Vlax Romani]])<br />(code: <code>rmy</code>) | [[:rn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kirundi|Kirundi]]<br />(code: <code>rn</code>) | [[:ro:User:PK2/teste|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Romanian language|Romanian]]<br />(code: <code>ro</code>) | [[:roa-rup:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Aromanian language|Aromanian]]<br />(code: <code>roa-rup</code>) | [[:roa-tara:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]] ([[:en:Tarantino dialect|Tarantino]])<br />(code: <code>roa-tara</code>) | [[:rsk:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Pannonian Rusyn|Pannonian Rusyn]]<br />(code: <code>rsk</code>) | [[:ru:User:PK2/Черновик|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Russian language|Russian]]<br />(code: <code>ru</code>) | [[:rue:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Rusyn language|Rusyn]]<br />(code: <code>rue</code>) | [[:rw:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Kinyarwanda|Kinyarwanda]]<br />(code: <code>rw</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ S |- | [[:sa:User:PK2/प्रयोगपृष्ठम्|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]]<br />(code: <code>sa</code>) | [[:sah:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Yakut language|Yakut]]<br />(code: <code>sah</code>) | [[:sat:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Santali language|Santali]]<br />(code: <code>sat</code>) | [[:sc:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Sardinian language|Sardinian]]<br />(code: <code>sc</code>) | [[:scn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Sicilian language|Sicilian]]<br />(code: <code>scn</code>) | [[:sco:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Scots language|Scots]]<br />(code: <code>sco</code>) | [[:sd:User:PK2/مشق پٽي|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Sindhi language|Sindhi]]<br />(code: <code>sd</code>) | [[:se:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Northern Sámi|Northern Sámi]]<br />(code: <code>se</code>) | [[:sg:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Sango language|Sango]]<br />(code: <code>sg</code>) | [[:sh:User:PK2/igralište|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Serbo-Croatian|Serbo-Croatian]]<br />(code: <code>sh</code>) | [[:shi:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Shilha language|Shilha]]<br />(code: <code>shi</code>) |- | [[:shn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Shan language|Shan]]<br />(code: <code>shn</code>) | [[:si:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Sinhala language|Sinhala]]<br />(code: <code>si</code>) | [[:simple:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Basic English|Basic English]]<br />(code: <code>simple</code>) | [[:sk:User:PK2/pieskovisko|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Slovak language|Slovak]]<br />(code: <code>sk</code>) | [[:skr:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Saraiki language|Saraiki]]<br />(code: <code>skr</code>) | [[:sl:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Slovene language|Slovene]]<br />(code: <code>sl</code>) | [[:sm:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Samoan language|Samoan]]<br />(code: <code>sm</code>) | [[:smn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Inari Sámi language|Inari Sámi]]<br />(code: <code>smn</code>) | [[:sn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Shona language|Shona]]<br />(code: <code>sn</code>) | [[:so:User:PK2/Bacaadka|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Somali language|Somali]]<br />(code: <code>so</code>) | [[:sq:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Albanian language|Albanian]]<br />(code: <code>sq</code>) |- | [[:sr:User:PK2/песак|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Serbian language|Serbian]]<br />(code: <code>sr</code>) | [[:srn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Sranan Tongo|Sranan Tongo]]<br />(code: <code>srn</code>) | [[:ss:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Swazi language|Swazi]]<br />(code: <code>ss</code>) | [[:st:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Sotho language|Sotho]]<br />(code: <code>st</code>) | [[:stq:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Saterland Frisian language|Saterland Frisian]]<br />(code: <code>stq</code>) | [[:su:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Sundanese language|Sundanese]]<br />(code: <code>su</code>) | [[:sv:User:PK2/sandlåda|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Swedish language|Swedish]]<br />(code: <code>sv</code>) | [[:sw:User:PK2/ukurasa wa majaribio|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Swahili language|Swahili]]<br />(code: <code>sw</code>) | [[:syl:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Sylheti language|Sylheti]]<br />(code: <code>syl</code>) | [[:szl:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Silesian language|Silesian]]<br />(code: <code>szl</code>) | [[:szy:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Sakizaya language|Sakizaya]]<br />(code: <code>szy</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ T |- | [[:ta:User:PK2/மணல்தொட்டி|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tamil language|Tamil]]<br />(code: <code>ta</code>) | [[:tay:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Atayal language|Atayal]]<br />(code: <code>tay</code>) | [[:tcy:User:PK2/ಕಲ್ಪುನ ಕಳ|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tulu language|Tulu]]<br />(code: <code>tcy</code>) | [[:tdd:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tai Nuea language|Tai Nuea]]<br />(code: <code>tdd</code>) | [[:te:User:PK2/ప్రయోగశాల|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Telugu language|Telugu]]<br />(code: <code>te</code>) | [[:tet:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tetum language|Tetum]]<br />(code: <code>tet</code>) | [[:tg:User:PK2/Сиёҳнавис|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tajik language|Tajik]]<br />(code: <code>tg</code>) | [[:th:User:PK2/ทดลองเขียน|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Thai language|Thai]]<br />(code: <code>th</code>) | [[:ti:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]<br />(code: <code>ti</code>) | [[:tig:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tigre language|Tigre]]<br />(code: <code>tig</code>) | [[:tk:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Turkmen language|Turkmen]]<br />(code: <code>tk</code>) | [[:tl:User:PK2/burador|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tagalog language|Tagalog]]<br />(code: <code>tl</code>) | [[:tly:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Talysh language|Talysh]]<br />(code: <code>tly</code>) |- | [[:tn:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tswana language|Tswana]]<br />(code: <code>tn</code>) | [[:to:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tongan language|Tongan]]<br />(code: <code>to</code>) | [[:tok:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Toki Pona|Toki Pona]]<br />(code: <code>tok</code>) | [[:tpi:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tok Pisin|Tok Pisin]]<br />(code: <code>tpi</code>) | [[:tr:User:PK2/deneme tahtası|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Turkish language|Turkish]]<br />(code: <code>tr</code>) | [[:trv:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Seediq language|Seediq]]<br />(code: <code>trv</code>) | [[:ts:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tsonga language|Tsonga]]<br />(code: <code>ts</code>) | [[:tt:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tatar language|Tatar]]<br />(code: <code>tt</code>) | [[:tum:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tumbuka language|Tumbuka]]<br />(code: <code>tum</code>) | [[:tw:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Akan language|Akan]] (Twi)<br />(code: <code>tw</code>) | [[:ty:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tahitian language|Tahitian]]<br />(code: <code>ty</code>) | [[:tyv:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Tuvan language|Tuvan]]<br />(code: <code>tyv</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ U |- | [[:udm:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Udmurt language|Udmurt]]<br />(code: <code>udm</code>) | [[:ug:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Uyghur language|Uyghur]]<br />(code: <code>ug</code>) | [[:uk:User:PK2/Чернетка|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]<br />(code: <code>uk</code>) | [[:ur:User:PK2/تختۂ مشق|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Urdu|Urdu]]<br />(code: <code>ur</code>) | [[:uz:User:PK2/qumloq|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Uzbek language|Uzbek]]<br />(code: <code>uz</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ V |- | [[:ve:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Venda language|Venda]]<br />(code: <code>ve</code>) | [[:vec:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Venetian language|Venetian]]<br />(code: <code>vec</code>) | [[:vep:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Veps language|Veps]]<br />(code: <code>vep</code>) | [[:vi:User:PK2/nháp|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]<br />(code: <code>vi</code>) | [[:vls:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:West Flemish|West Flemish]]<br />(code: <code>vls</code>) | [[:vo:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Volapük|Volapük]]<br />(code: <code>vo</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ W |- | [[:wa:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Walloon language|Walloon]]<br />(code: <code>wa</code>) | [[:war:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Waray language|Waray]]<br />(code: <code>war</code>) | [[:wo:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Wolof language|Wolof]]<br />(code: <code>wo</code>) | [[:wuu:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Wu Chinese|Wu Chinese]]<br />(code: <code>wuu</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ X |- | [[:xal:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Oirat language|Oirat]] ([[:en:Kalmyk Oirat|Kalmyk Oirat]])<br />(code: <code>xal</code>) | [[:xh:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Xhosa language|Xhosa]]<br />(code: <code>xh</code>) | [[:xmf:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]]<br />(code: <code>xmf</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ Y |- | [[:yi:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Yiddish|Yiddish]]<br />(code: <code>yi</code>) | [[:yo:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Yoruba language|Yoruba]]<br />(code: <code>yo</code>) |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:85%" |+ Z |- | [[:za:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Zhuang languages|Zhuang]] ([[:en:Standard Zhuang|Standard Zhuang]])<br />(code: <code>za</code>) | [[:zea:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Zeelandic|Zeelandic]]<br />(code: <code>zea</code>) | [[:zgh:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Standard Moroccan Amazigh|Standard Moroccan Amazigh]]<br />(code: <code>zgh</code>) | [[:zh:User:PK2/沙盒|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Chinese language|Chinese]] ([[:en:Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]])<br />(code: <code>zh</code>) | [[:zh-classical:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Classical Chinese|Classical Chinese]]<br />(code: <code>zh-classical</code>) | [[:zh-min-nan:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Southern Min|Southern Min]]<br />(code: <code>zh-min-nan</code>) | [[:zh-yue:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Cantonese|Cantonese]]<br />(code: <code>zh-yue</code>) | [[:zu:User:PK2/sandbox|/sandbox]] in [[:en:Zulu language|Zulu]]<br />(code: <code>zu</code>) |} lqv4jf4ytbpqgk0b4c59pskg40l4i1p 0 27083 99508 99507 2026-06-01T12:20:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99508 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] lqb8j5vpo6ctbq0x06c28p0lzyobgq4 99509 99508 2026-06-01T12:21:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99509 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] otmou817uzw8hcdrj7mijzb2ryibnj5 99510 99509 2026-06-01T12:24:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99510 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 7p9kt45mmloabl37amc85r3kecoavrs 99511 99510 2026-06-01T12:32:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99511 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.) == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] meq29wke2asrbq3ijk18y0maijay8qy 99512 99511 2026-06-01T12:34:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99512 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] tqe72tw3lee8uq73y17vi1ivmn72n9t 99513 99512 2026-06-01T12:39:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99513 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] ar1ghy4ek8nwuqyjgasz3ukj4w3kc7y 99514 99513 2026-06-01T12:40:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99514 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] dw14peotfsmiol6w4arhiq0upwx069l 99515 99514 2026-06-01T12:40:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99515 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 4c23no6ru2u2bheml0rzu4dpt4qfbot 99516 99515 2026-06-01T12:41:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99516 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] f0liwcknu0ija03ddzaqtsnnmec6uwx 99517 99516 2026-06-01T12:41:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99517 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] p362bk6ae959c0jp4w40t9cqdwvxr95 99518 99517 2026-06-01T12:44:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99518 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]] == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 07mm7leasj0483o6l38nm6wfgic99r3 99519 99518 2026-06-01T12:48:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99519 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de[[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 3t1prmaxya04q1uqgs26qbwec7euf1s 99520 99519 2026-06-01T12:49:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99520 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan. Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]]. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] stmahgjwokkxgql4y5d3qqyqhfeen2h 99521 99520 2026-06-01T12:50:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99521 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan. Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]]. Dem name de [[:en:Awash_International_Bank|Awash International Bank]] after de Awash River. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 9rga3zcmcgr3lreynddm5bhzjsrt4mv 99522 99521 2026-06-01T12:52:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99522 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Markakis |first=John |date=2003 |title=Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar & Ise Ethiopia |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=30 |issue=97 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |issn=0305-6244 |jstor=4006987 |s2cid=153511308 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]]. Dem name de [[:en:Awash_International_Bank|Awash International Bank]] after de Awash River. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] puzuf2kydhq7rbsgrfdbd8e3gbf5bl1 99523 99522 2026-06-01T12:53:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99523 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Markakis |first=John |date=2003 |title=Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar & Ise Ethiopia |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=30 |issue=97 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |issn=0305-6244 |jstor=4006987 |s2cid=153511308 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]].<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands'' (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 61</ref> Dem name de [[:en:Awash_International_Bank|Awash International Bank]] after de Awash River. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] kfs8ouw5hmqh09hts58fzqfryad622u 99524 99523 2026-06-01T12:54:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99524 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Markakis |first=John |date=2003 |title=Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar & Ise Ethiopia |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=30 |issue=97 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |issn=0305-6244 |jstor=4006987 |s2cid=153511308 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]].<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands'' (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 61</ref> Dem name de [[:en:Awash_International_Bank|Awash International Bank]] after de Awash River.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=assessment of credit risk management policies |url=http://197.156.93.91/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/Thesis%20Meseret%20Zelalem.pdf}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 6txdqy0eim6ee2r52167n0810p79j0z 99525 99524 2026-06-01T12:56:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99525 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Markakis |first=John |date=2003 |title=Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar & Ise Ethiopia |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=30 |issue=97 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |issn=0305-6244 |jstor=4006987 |s2cid=153511308 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]].<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands'' (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 61</ref> Dem name de [[:en:Awash_International_Bank|Awash International Bank]] after de Awash River.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=assessment of credit risk management policies |url=http://197.156.93.91/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/Thesis%20Meseret%20Zelalem.pdf}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] swpm0yufz19addwee7n7lzy4wmn3f0s 99526 99525 2026-06-01T12:57:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99526 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Markakis |first=John |date=2003 |title=Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar & Ise Ethiopia |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=30 |issue=97 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |issn=0305-6244 |jstor=4006987 |s2cid=153511308 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]].<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands'' (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 61</ref> Dem name de [[:en:Awash_International_Bank|Awash International Bank]] after de Awash River.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=assessment of credit risk management policies |url=http://197.156.93.91/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/Thesis%20Meseret%20Zelalem.pdf}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Adama–Awash_Expressway|Adama–Awash Expressway]] == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] qtqux54bt74j7cx6rc55az0aa1k1ynm 99527 99526 2026-06-01T12:58:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99527 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Markakis |first=John |date=2003 |title=Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar & Ise Ethiopia |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=30 |issue=97 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |issn=0305-6244 |jstor=4006987 |s2cid=153511308 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]].<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands'' (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 61</ref> Dem name de [[:en:Awash_International_Bank|Awash International Bank]] after de Awash River.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=assessment of credit risk management policies |url=http://197.156.93.91/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/Thesis%20Meseret%20Zelalem.pdf}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Adama–Awash_Expressway|Adama–Awash Expressway]] * [[:en:Awash–Weldiya_Railway|Awash–Weldiya Railway]] == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 7ye0d7rkosa7sncw8lnl9phimz9yefl 99528 99527 2026-06-01T12:58:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99528 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Markakis |first=John |date=2003 |title=Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar & Ise Ethiopia |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=30 |issue=97 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |issn=0305-6244 |jstor=4006987 |s2cid=153511308 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]].<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands'' (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 61</ref> Dem name de [[:en:Awash_International_Bank|Awash International Bank]] after de Awash River.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=assessment of credit risk management policies |url=http://197.156.93.91/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/Thesis%20Meseret%20Zelalem.pdf}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Adama–Awash_Expressway|Adama–Awash Expressway]] * [[:en:Awash–Weldiya_Railway|Awash–Weldiya Railway]] * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_Ethiopia|List of rivers of Ethiopia]] == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] siw9hl4xsf06k4kerydvpmvl76lrrlc 99529 99528 2026-06-01T12:59:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99529 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Markakis |first=John |date=2003 |title=Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar & Ise Ethiopia |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=30 |issue=97 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |issn=0305-6244 |jstor=4006987 |s2cid=153511308 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]].<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands'' (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 61</ref> Dem name de [[:en:Awash_International_Bank|Awash International Bank]] after de Awash River.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=assessment of credit risk management policies |url=http://197.156.93.91/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/Thesis%20Meseret%20Zelalem.pdf}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Adama–Awash_Expressway|Adama–Awash Expressway]] * [[:en:Awash–Weldiya_Railway|Awash–Weldiya Railway]] * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_Ethiopia|List of rivers of Ethiopia]] * [[:en:List_of_fossil_sites|List of fossil sites]] ''(plus link directory)'' == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 7bdt2e1v3oanpb9v8w3alpgbe2ofqts 99530 99529 2026-06-01T12:59:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99530 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Markakis |first=John |date=2003 |title=Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar & Ise Ethiopia |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=30 |issue=97 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |issn=0305-6244 |jstor=4006987 |s2cid=153511308 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]].<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands'' (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 61</ref> Dem name de [[:en:Awash_International_Bank|Awash International Bank]] after de Awash River.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=assessment of credit risk management policies |url=http://197.156.93.91/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/Thesis%20Meseret%20Zelalem.pdf}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Adama–Awash_Expressway|Adama–Awash Expressway]] * [[:en:Awash–Weldiya_Railway|Awash–Weldiya Railway]] * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_Ethiopia|List of rivers of Ethiopia]] * [[:en:List_of_fossil_sites|List of fossil sites]] ''(plus link directory)'' * [[:en:List_of_hominina_fossils|List of hominina (hominid) fossils]] ''(plus images)'' == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] j4mjzi5hh75d4scoorloarnp4w2x9ze 99531 99530 2026-06-01T13:00:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99531 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Markakis |first=John |date=2003 |title=Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar & Ise Ethiopia |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=30 |issue=97 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |issn=0305-6244 |jstor=4006987 |s2cid=153511308 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]].<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands'' (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 61</ref> Dem name de [[:en:Awash_International_Bank|Awash International Bank]] after de Awash River.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=assessment of credit risk management policies |url=http://197.156.93.91/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/Thesis%20Meseret%20Zelalem.pdf}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Adama–Awash_Expressway|Adama–Awash Expressway]] * [[:en:Awash–Weldiya_Railway|Awash–Weldiya Railway]] * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_Ethiopia|List of rivers of Ethiopia]] * [[:en:List_of_fossil_sites|List of fossil sites]] ''(plus link directory)'' * [[:en:List_of_hominina_fossils|List of hominina (hominid) fossils]] ''(plus images)'' * [[:en:List_of_most-polluted_rivers|List of most polluted rivers]] == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] rkkvp6ky6okbfl5hct7kpujq7vj7e1o 99532 99531 2026-06-01T13:01:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99532 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.<ref name=":6" /> De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}</ref> Dem discover "Lucy", one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for [[UNESCO]] ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.<ref name="unesco" /> == Geography == [[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.<ref name=":5" /> Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.<ref name="Length">[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 "Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref> E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.<ref name=":7" /> De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori. Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita. Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.<ref name=":7" /> == Climate == De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}</ref> Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}</ref> === Climate change === A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.<ref name=":4" /> == Hydrology == [[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).<ref name=":5" />]] === Rainfall, droughts den floods === Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.<ref name=":4" /> Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.<ref name=":9">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. & Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.</ref> De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.<ref name=":9" /> Research find say "de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography".<ref name=":10">Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.</ref>{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur. Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.<ref name=":4" /> Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.<ref name=":4" /> Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use "[[:en:Land-use_planning|land-use planning]] dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|41}} ==== Groundwater ==== [[:en:Groundwater_recharge|Groundwater recharge]] dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}</ref> Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}</ref> wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.<ref name=":3" /> Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.<ref name=":2" /> Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.<ref name=":2" /> Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.<ref name=":3" /> De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.<ref name=":7" /> Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.<ref name=":7" /> == Ecology == [[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de [[:en:Awash_National_Park|Awash National Park]] insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_forests|Ethiopian montane forests]] ecoregion. At high altitudes de [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_grasslands_and_woodlands|Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands]] den [[:en:Ethiopian_montane_moorlands|Ethiopian montane moorlands]] dey predominate. De [[:en:Somali_Acacia–Commiphora_bushlands_and_thickets|Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands and thickets]] ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.<ref name=":0" /> All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.<ref name=":1">{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}</ref> ==== Fauna ==== De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de [[:en:African_wild_ass|African wild ass]]. De mammal be now extinct for [[:en:Yangudi_Rassa_National_Park|Yangudi Rassa National Park]] insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent [[:en:Mille-Serdo_Wildlife_Reserve|Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve]] insyd.<ref>Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 "''Equus africanus''"]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.</ref> Oda large animals native to de area dey include [[:en:Beisa_Oryx|Beisa Oryx]], [[:en:Soemmerring's_Gazelle|Soemmering's gazelle]], [[:en:Dorcas_gazelle|Dorcas gazelle]], [[:en:Gerenuk|gerenuk]] den [[:en:Grevy's_zebra|Grevy's zebra]]. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river. == Human activities den impacts == [[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by [[:en:Guglielmo_Massaia|Guglielmo Massaia]]]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.<ref name=":6" /> Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den [[:en:Sugarcane_mill|sugar factories]] (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).<ref name=":7" /> ==== Water supply ==== De [[:en:Water_supply|water supplies]] of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]</ref> ==== Economic activities ==== De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]] insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total [[:en:Irrigation|irrigated]] area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.<ref name=":5" /> Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small [[:en:Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.<ref name=":1" /> Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly [[:en:Reforestation|reforestation]] for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary [[:en:Coniferous_forest|coniferous forests]]. De cultivated crops be (endemic) [[:en:Eragrostis_tef|teff]], maize, [[:en:Sorghum_bicolor|sorghum]], beans den vegetables.<ref name=":1" /> [[:en:Pasture|Pastures]] dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De [[:en:Cattle|cattle]] graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give [[:en:Erosion|erosion]], sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for [[:en:Rainfed_agriculture|rainfed agriculture]] insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.<ref name=":5" /> Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for [[:en:Food_security|food insecurity]] insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein [[:en:Gross_domestic_product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. [[:en:Humanitarian_assistance|Humanitarian assistance]] requests be relatively common sekof [[:en:Extreme_weather|climate shocks]], such as de [[:en:2014–2016_El_Niño_event|2015/2016 El Niño events]] wey result for a severe drought insyd den a [[:en:Humanitarian_response|humanitarian response]] dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.<ref name=":4" /> ==== Pollution ==== [[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at [[:en:Sodere|Sodere]], Ethiopia (2014)]][[:en:Sewage_treatment|Municipal]] den [[:en:Industrial_wastewater_treatment|industrial wastewater treatment]] plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma [[:en:Effluent|effluents]] (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus [[:en:Water_pollution|polluting]] dem.<ref name=":8" /> Growing [[:en:Industrialisation|industrialization]] den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de [[:en:Ecosystem|ecosystem]] sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of [[:en:Water_pollution|water pollution]] for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, [[:en:Agricultural_runoff|agricultural runoff]] ([[:en:Pesticide|pesticides]], [[:en:Fertilizer|fertilizers]]), den [[:en:Sewage|sewage]] discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.<ref name=":6" /> De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena. [[:en:Heavy_metal_(elements)|Heavy metal]] pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.<ref name=":6" /> [[:en:Water_pollution|Polluting]] industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include [[:en:Tanning_(leather)|tanneries]], paint factories, [[:en:Slaughterhouse|slaughterhouses]], [[:en:Textile_industry|textiles]], [[:en:Brewery|breweries]], [[:en:Soft_drink|soft drink]] factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Abeba]], Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, [[:en:Sabata_(town)|Sebeta]], [[:en:Bishoftu|Bishoftu]], Gelan, [[:en:Adama|Adama]], Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Water quality ==== A study of river [[:en:Water_quality|water quality]] for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|WHO limit]] [[:en:Drinking_water_quality_standards#World_Health_Organization_Guidelines|give drinking water]]; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.<ref name=":6" /> Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of [[:en:Drinking_water|drinking water]] den [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]]. De presence of [[:en:Contaminants_of_emerging_concern|emerging organic contaminants]] for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, [[:en:Personal_care_products|personal care products]], industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow [[:en:Groundwater|groundwater]] systems insyd: "Dem detect pesticides, [[:en:Veterinary_drugs|veterinary drugs]], [[:en:Artificial_sweeteners|artificial sweeteners]], den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find [[:en:Endocrine_disruptor|endocrine disruptors]] den [[:en:Equine_drug_testing|equine drugs]] for both surface den groundwater sources insyd."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}</ref> De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.<ref name=":7" /> Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.<ref name=":7" /> For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.<ref name=":7" /> == Paleontology == <blockquote>''Make you sanso see: [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] den [[:en:Middle_Awash_Project|Middle Awash Project]]''</blockquote>Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] remains for de [[:en:Middle_Awash|Middle Awash]] insyd.<ref name="HS">{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}</ref> De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late [[:en:Miocene|Miocene]], [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]], de early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many [[:en:Australopithecines|Australopithecines]], wey dey include "Lucy", de most famous individual [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]].<ref name="unesco" /><ref name="HS" /> Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''[[:en:Homo_erectus|Homo erectus]]'' den ''[[:en:Ardipithecus|Ardipithecus]]''. == History == For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great [[:en:Dir_(clan)|Dir]] river den dey lay for de country of de [[:en:Muslims|Muslims]] insyd.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]]] ==== 20th Century ==== De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de [[:en:Asaita|Aussa]] oasis insyd be [[:en:Wilfred_Thesiger|Wilfred Thesiger]] for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to [[:en:Tadjoura|Tadjoura]]. (Although de explorer [[:en:L._M._Nesbitt|L. M. Nesbitt]] follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de [[:en:Afar_Depression|Afar Depression]] to de Red Sea.<ref>As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)</ref>) For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as [[:en:Koka_Reservoir|Koka Reservoir]]), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing [[:en:Sedimentation|sedimentation]] threaten both lake den dam. == Society den culture == [[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de [[:en:Afar_people|Afar pippoe]] den [[:en:Issa_(clan)|Issa]] [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] clan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Markakis |first=John |date=2003 |title=Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar & Ise Ethiopia |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=30 |issue=97 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |issn=0305-6244 |jstor=4006987 |s2cid=153511308 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de [[:en:Fatagar|Fatagar]], [[:en:Ifat_(historical_region)|Ifat]], den [[:en:Shewa|Shewa]].<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands'' (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 61</ref> Dem name de [[:en:Awash_International_Bank|Awash International Bank]] after de Awash River.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=assessment of credit risk management policies |url=http://197.156.93.91/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/Thesis%20Meseret%20Zelalem.pdf}}</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Adama–Awash_Expressway|Adama–Awash Expressway]] * [[:en:Awash–Weldiya_Railway|Awash–Weldiya Railway]] * [[:en:List_of_rivers_of_Ethiopia|List of rivers of Ethiopia]] * [[:en:List_of_fossil_sites|List of fossil sites]] ''(plus link directory)'' * [[:en:List_of_hominina_fossils|List of hominina (hominid) fossils]] ''(plus images)'' * [[:en:List_of_most-polluted_rivers|List of most polluted rivers]] * [[:en:List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Ethiopia|List of World Heritage Sites for Ethiopia insyd]] == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Awash River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]] 4w80pjzarcehzc34svue8kdb43uy99x 0 27147 99542 99374 2026-06-01T17:46:48Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99542 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Atlantic_Ocean_to_Africa.ogv|thumb|Dem take dis video by de crew of Expedition 29 on board de ISS. De pass dey start from just northeast of de island of Newfoundland over de North Atlantic Ocean to central Africa, over [[South Sudan]].]] De '''Atlantic Ocean''' be de second largest of de world ein five oceanic divisions, plus an area of about 85,133,000 square kilometers (32,870,000 sq mi).<ref name="Atlantic Ocean – Britannica2">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Atlantic Ocean|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215072935/https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean|archive-date=15 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> E dey cover approximately 17% of [[Earth|Earth ein surface]] den about 24% of ein water surface area. During de Age of Discovery, na e be known for separating de New World of de Americas ([[North America]] den South America) from de Old World of Afro-Eurasia ([[Africa]], Asia, den Europe). Thru ein separation of Afro-Eurasia from de Americas, de Atlantic Ocean play a central role insyd de development of human society, globalization, den de histories of chaw nations. While de Norse be de first known humans to cross de Atlantic, na e be de expedition of Christopher Columbus insyd 1492 wey prove to be de most consequential. Columbus ein expedition usher insyd an age of exploration den colonization of de Americas by European powers, most notably Portugal, Spain, [[French colonial empire|France]], den de United Kingdom. From de 16th to 19th centuries, na de Atlantic Ocean be de center of both [[Atlantic slave trade|an eponymous slave trade]] den de Columbian exchange while occasionally dey host naval battles. Such naval battles, as well as growing trade from regional American powers like de United States den [[Brazil]], both increased in degree during de early 20th century. After World War II, major military operations cam be rarer, though notable postwar conflicts dey include de Cuban Missile Crisis den de Falklands War. De ocean remain a core component of trade around de world. De Atlantic Ocean ein temperatures vary by location. For example, de South Atlantic dey maintain warm temperatures year-round, as ein basin countries be tropical. De North Atlantic maintain a temperate climate, as ein basin countries be temperate wey e get seasons of extremely low temperatures den high temperatures.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SAS |first=Des Clics Nomades |title=Water temperature of the Atlantic Ocean - real time map and monthly temperatures |url=https://www.seatemperatu.re/seas-and-oceans/atlantic-ocean/ |access-date=2025-06-15 |website=SeaTemperatu.re |language=en}}</ref> De Atlantic Ocean dey occupy an elongated, S-shaped basin wey dey extend longitudinally between Europe den Africa to de east, den de Americas to de west. As one component of de interconnected World Ocean, e be connected insyd de north to de Arctic Ocean, to de [[Pacific Ocean]] insyd de southwest, de Indian Ocean insyd de southeast, den de Southern Ocean insyd de south. Oda definitions describe de Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica. Dem divide de Atlantic Ocean insyd two parts, de northern den southern Atlantic, by de Equator.<ref>[[International Hydrographic Organization]], [https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'', 3rd ed. (1953)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf|date=8 October 2011}}, pages 4 and 13.</ref> == Names == [[File:1710_De_La_Feuille_Map_of_Africa_-_Geographicus_-_Africa-lafeuille-1710.jpg|thumb|De Aethiopian Ocean dem depict insyd a 1710 French map of [[Africa]]]] De oldest known dey mention of an "Atlantic" sea cam from Stesichorus around mid-sixth century BC (Sch. A. R. 1. 211):<ref name="MangasPlácido1998">{{Cite book |last=Mangas |first=Julio |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=pZBSML97Ya0C|page=283}} |title=La Península Ibérica en los autores griegos: de Homero a Platón – SLG / (Sch. A. R. 1. 211) |last2=Plácido |first2=Domingo |last3=Elícegui |first3=Elvira Gangutia |last4=Rodríguez Somolinos |first4=Helena |publisher=Editorial Complutense |year=1998 |page=283}}</ref> Atlantikôi pelágei (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντικῷ πελάγει, 'the Atlantic sea', etym. 'Sea of Atlas') den insyd ''The Histories'' of Herodotus around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202.4): Atlantis thalassa (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα, 'Sea of Atlas' anaa 'de Atlantic sea'<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ἀτλαντίς, DGE Diccionario Griego-Español |url=http://dge.cchs.csic.es/xdge/%E1%BC%88%CF%84%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CF%82 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101191304/http://dge.cchs.csic.es/xdge/%E1%BC%88%CF%84%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CF%82 |archive-date=1 January 2018 |website=dge.cchs.csic.es}}</ref>), wer de name dey refer to "de sea beyond de pillars of Hercules" (de Strait of Gibraltar), beyond de Atlas Mountains insyd Morocco den off de West African coast.<ref name="Oxford-Dict" /> Insyd dese uses, de name dey refer to Atlas, de Titan insyd Greek mythology, wey support de heavens den wey later appear as a frontispiece insyd medieval maps den atlases.<ref name="Oxford-Dict">{{Harvnb|Oxford Dictionaries|2015}}</ref> === Water masses === {| class="wikitable floatright" style="font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center;" |+Temperature-salinity characteristics for Atlantic water masses<ref>{{Harvnb|Emery|Meincke|1986}}</ref> !Water mass !Temperature !Salinity |- ! colspan="3" |Upper waters (0–500 m or 0–1,600 ft) |- | align="left" |Atlantic Subarctic<br /><br />Upper Water (ASUW) |0.0–4.0&nbsp;°C |34.0–35.0 |- | align="left" |Western North Atlantic<br /><br />Central Water (WNACW) |7.0–20&nbsp;°C |35.0–36.7 |- | align="left" |Eastern North Atlantic<br /><br />Central Water (ENACW) |8.0–18.0&nbsp;°C |35.2–36.7 |- | align="left" |South Atlantic<br /><br />Central Water (SACW) |5.0–18.0&nbsp;°C |34.3–35.8 |- ! colspan="3" |Intermediate waters (500–1,500 m anaa 1,600–4,900 ft) |- | align="left" |Western Atlantic Subarctic<br /><br />Intermediate Water (WASIW) |3.0–9.0&nbsp;°C |34.0–35.1 |- | align="left" |Eastern Atlantic Subarctic<br /><br />Intermediate Water (EASIW) |3.0–9.0&nbsp;°C |34.4–35.3 |- | align="left" |Mediterranean Water (MW) |2.6–11.0&nbsp;°C |35.0–36.2 |- | align="left" |Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW) |−1.5–3.0&nbsp;°C |34.7–34.9 |- ! colspan="3" |Deep den abyssal waters (1,500&nbsp;m–bottom anaa 4,900&nbsp;ft–bottom) |- | align="left" |North Atlantic<br /><br />Deep Water (NADW) |1.5–4.0&nbsp;°C |34.8–35.0 |- | align="left" |Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) |−0.9–1.7&nbsp;°C |34.6–34.7 |- | align="left" |Arctic Bottom Water (ABW) |−1.8 to −0.5&nbsp;°C |34.9–34.9 |} == Read further == * Dickson, Henry Newton (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Atlantic_Ocean|"Atlantic Ocean"]] . ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp. 855–857. * {{Cite book|title=Atlantic: A Vast Ocean of a Million Stories|last=Winchester|first=Simon|publisher=HarperCollins UK|year=2010|isbn=978-0-00-734137-5|author-link=Simon Winchester}} == References == [[Category:Articles wey dey contain video clips]] <references /> == External links == qx13bn98xo8xjldrkg6wgxji87u0c1e 99543 99542 2026-06-01T17:48:42Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Atlantic_Ocean_to_Africa.ogv|thumb|Dem take dis video by de crew of Expedition 29 on board de ISS. De pass dey start from just northeast of de island of Newfoundland over de North Atlantic Ocean to central Africa, over [[South Sudan]].]] De '''Atlantic Ocean''' be de second largest of de world ein five oceanic divisions, plus an area of about 85,133,000 square kilometers (32,870,000 sq mi).<ref name="Atlantic Ocean – Britannica2">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Atlantic Ocean|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215072935/https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean|archive-date=15 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> E dey cover approximately 17% of [[Earth|Earth ein surface]] den about 24% of ein water surface area. During de Age of Discovery, na e be known for separating de New World of de Americas ([[North America]] den South America) from de Old World of Afro-Eurasia ([[Africa]], Asia, den Europe). Thru ein separation of Afro-Eurasia from de Americas, de Atlantic Ocean play a central role insyd de development of human society, globalization, den de histories of chaw nations. While de Norse be de first known humans to cross de Atlantic, na e be de expedition of Christopher Columbus insyd 1492 wey prove to be de most consequential. Columbus ein expedition usher insyd an age of exploration den colonization of de Americas by European powers, most notably Portugal, Spain, [[French colonial empire|France]], den de United Kingdom. From de 16th to 19th centuries, na de Atlantic Ocean be de center of both [[Atlantic slave trade|an eponymous slave trade]] den de Columbian exchange while occasionally dey host naval battles. Such naval battles, as well as growing trade from regional American powers like de United States den [[Brazil]], both increased in degree during de early 20th century. After World War II, major military operations cam be rarer, though notable postwar conflicts dey include de Cuban Missile Crisis den de Falklands War. De ocean remain a core component of trade around de world. De Atlantic Ocean ein temperatures vary by location. For example, de South Atlantic dey maintain warm temperatures year-round, as ein basin countries be tropical. De North Atlantic maintain a temperate climate, as ein basin countries be temperate wey e get seasons of extremely low temperatures den high temperatures.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SAS |first=Des Clics Nomades |title=Water temperature of the Atlantic Ocean - real time map and monthly temperatures |url=https://www.seatemperatu.re/seas-and-oceans/atlantic-ocean/ |access-date=2025-06-15 |website=SeaTemperatu.re |language=en}}</ref> De Atlantic Ocean dey occupy an elongated, S-shaped basin wey dey extend longitudinally between Europe den Africa to de east, den de Americas to de west. As one component of de interconnected World Ocean, e be connected insyd de north to de Arctic Ocean, to de [[Pacific Ocean]] insyd de southwest, de Indian Ocean insyd de southeast, den de Southern Ocean insyd de south. Oda definitions describe de Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica. Dem divide de Atlantic Ocean insyd two parts, de northern den southern Atlantic, by de Equator.<ref>[[International Hydrographic Organization]], [https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'', 3rd ed. (1953)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf|date=8 October 2011}}, pages 4 and 13.</ref> == Names == [[File:1710_De_La_Feuille_Map_of_Africa_-_Geographicus_-_Africa-lafeuille-1710.jpg|thumb|De Aethiopian Ocean dem depict insyd a 1710 French map of [[Africa]]]] De oldest known dey mention of an "Atlantic" sea cam from Stesichorus around mid-sixth century BC (Sch. A. R. 1. 211):<ref name="MangasPlácido1998">{{Cite book |last=Mangas |first=Julio |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=pZBSML97Ya0C|page=283}} |title=La Península Ibérica en los autores griegos: de Homero a Platón – SLG / (Sch. A. R. 1. 211) |last2=Plácido |first2=Domingo |last3=Elícegui |first3=Elvira Gangutia |last4=Rodríguez Somolinos |first4=Helena |publisher=Editorial Complutense |year=1998 |page=283}}</ref> Atlantikôi pelágei (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντικῷ πελάγει, 'the Atlantic sea', etym. 'Sea of Atlas') den insyd ''The Histories'' of Herodotus around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202.4): Atlantis thalassa (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα, 'Sea of Atlas' anaa 'de Atlantic sea'<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ἀτλαντίς, DGE Diccionario Griego-Español |url=http://dge.cchs.csic.es/xdge/%E1%BC%88%CF%84%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CF%82 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101191304/http://dge.cchs.csic.es/xdge/%E1%BC%88%CF%84%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CF%82 |archive-date=1 January 2018 |website=dge.cchs.csic.es}}</ref>), wer de name dey refer to "de sea beyond de pillars of Hercules" (de Strait of Gibraltar), beyond de Atlas Mountains insyd Morocco den off de West African coast.<ref name="Oxford-Dict" /> Insyd dese uses, de name dey refer to Atlas, de Titan insyd Greek mythology, wey support de heavens den wey later appear as a frontispiece insyd medieval maps den atlases.<ref name="Oxford-Dict">{{Harvnb|Oxford Dictionaries|2015}}</ref> === Water masses === {| class="wikitable floatright" style="font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center;" |+Temperature-salinity characteristics for Atlantic water masses<ref>{{Harvnb|Emery|Meincke|1986}}</ref> !Water mass !Temperature !Salinity |- ! colspan="3" |Upper waters (0–500 m or 0–1,600 ft) |- | align="left" |Atlantic Subarctic<br /><br />Upper Water (ASUW) |0.0–4.0&nbsp;°C |34.0–35.0 |- | align="left" |Western North Atlantic<br /><br />Central Water (WNACW) |7.0–20&nbsp;°C |35.0–36.7 |- | align="left" |Eastern North Atlantic<br /><br />Central Water (ENACW) |8.0–18.0&nbsp;°C |35.2–36.7 |- | align="left" |South Atlantic<br /><br />Central Water (SACW) |5.0–18.0&nbsp;°C |34.3–35.8 |- ! colspan="3" |Intermediate waters (500–1,500 m anaa 1,600–4,900 ft) |- | align="left" |Western Atlantic Subarctic<br /><br />Intermediate Water (WASIW) |3.0–9.0&nbsp;°C |34.0–35.1 |- | align="left" |Eastern Atlantic Subarctic<br /><br />Intermediate Water (EASIW) |3.0–9.0&nbsp;°C |34.4–35.3 |- | align="left" |Mediterranean Water (MW) |2.6–11.0&nbsp;°C |35.0–36.2 |- | align="left" |Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW) |−1.5–3.0&nbsp;°C |34.7–34.9 |- ! colspan="3" |Deep den abyssal waters (1,500&nbsp;m–bottom anaa 4,900&nbsp;ft–bottom) |- | align="left" |North Atlantic<br /><br />Deep Water (NADW) |1.5–4.0&nbsp;°C |34.8–35.0 |- | align="left" |Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) |−0.9–1.7&nbsp;°C |34.6–34.7 |- | align="left" |Arctic Bottom Water (ABW) |−1.8 to −0.5&nbsp;°C |34.9–34.9 |} == Read further == * Dickson, Henry Newton (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Atlantic_Ocean|"Atlantic Ocean"]] . ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp. 855–857. * {{Cite book|title=Atlantic: A Vast Ocean of a Million Stories|last=Winchester|first=Simon|publisher=HarperCollins UK|year=2010|isbn=978-0-00-734137-5|author-link=Simon Winchester}} == References == [[Category:Articles wey dey contain video clips]] <references /> == External links == {{Sister project links|voy=Atlantic Ocean|wikt=Atlantic Ocean|commons=Atlantic Ocean|q=Atlantic Ocean|v=no|n=no|s=CIA World Fact Book, 2004/Atlantic Ocean|b=no}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090829012101/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/geoghist/histories/history/hiscountries/A/atlanticocean.html Atlantic Ocean]. Cartage.org.lb (archived) * [https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3320.lh000817/ "Map of Atlantic Coast of North America from the Chesapeake Bay to Florida"] from 1639 via the Library of Congress {{Authority control}} [[Category:Atlantic Ocean| ]] [[Category:Oceans]] [[Category:History of de Atlantic Ocean| ]] [[Category:Landforms of de Atlantic Ocean| ]] [[Category:Oceans wey dey surround Antarctica]] 5a2itnmfu3nk87foq9fe9bx5dn7n2nf 99544 99543 2026-06-01T17:54:34Z DaSupremo 9 /* Sources */ Improve article 99544 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Atlantic_Ocean_to_Africa.ogv|thumb|Dem take dis video by de crew of Expedition 29 on board de ISS. De pass dey start from just northeast of de island of Newfoundland over de North Atlantic Ocean to central Africa, over [[South Sudan]].]] De '''Atlantic Ocean''' be de second largest of de world ein five oceanic divisions, plus an area of about 85,133,000 square kilometers (32,870,000 sq mi).<ref name="Atlantic Ocean – Britannica2">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Atlantic Ocean|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean|access-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215072935/https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean|archive-date=15 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> E dey cover approximately 17% of [[Earth|Earth ein surface]] den about 24% of ein water surface area. During de Age of Discovery, na e be known for separating de New World of de Americas ([[North America]] den South America) from de Old World of Afro-Eurasia ([[Africa]], Asia, den Europe). Thru ein separation of Afro-Eurasia from de Americas, de Atlantic Ocean play a central role insyd de development of human society, globalization, den de histories of chaw nations. While de Norse be de first known humans to cross de Atlantic, na e be de expedition of Christopher Columbus insyd 1492 wey prove to be de most consequential. Columbus ein expedition usher insyd an age of exploration den colonization of de Americas by European powers, most notably Portugal, Spain, [[French colonial empire|France]], den de United Kingdom. From de 16th to 19th centuries, na de Atlantic Ocean be de center of both [[Atlantic slave trade|an eponymous slave trade]] den de Columbian exchange while occasionally dey host naval battles. Such naval battles, as well as growing trade from regional American powers like de United States den [[Brazil]], both increased in degree during de early 20th century. After World War II, major military operations cam be rarer, though notable postwar conflicts dey include de Cuban Missile Crisis den de Falklands War. De ocean remain a core component of trade around de world. De Atlantic Ocean ein temperatures vary by location. For example, de South Atlantic dey maintain warm temperatures year-round, as ein basin countries be tropical. De North Atlantic maintain a temperate climate, as ein basin countries be temperate wey e get seasons of extremely low temperatures den high temperatures.<ref>{{Cite web |last=SAS |first=Des Clics Nomades |title=Water temperature of the Atlantic Ocean - real time map and monthly temperatures |url=https://www.seatemperatu.re/seas-and-oceans/atlantic-ocean/ |access-date=2025-06-15 |website=SeaTemperatu.re |language=en}}</ref> De Atlantic Ocean dey occupy an elongated, S-shaped basin wey dey extend longitudinally between Europe den Africa to de east, den de Americas to de west. As one component of de interconnected World Ocean, e be connected insyd de north to de Arctic Ocean, to de [[Pacific Ocean]] insyd de southwest, de Indian Ocean insyd de southeast, den de Southern Ocean insyd de south. Oda definitions describe de Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica. Dem divide de Atlantic Ocean insyd two parts, de northern den southern Atlantic, by de Equator.<ref>[[International Hydrographic Organization]], [https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'', 3rd ed. (1953)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf|date=8 October 2011}}, pages 4 and 13.</ref> == Names == [[File:1710_De_La_Feuille_Map_of_Africa_-_Geographicus_-_Africa-lafeuille-1710.jpg|thumb|De Aethiopian Ocean dem depict insyd a 1710 French map of [[Africa]]]] De oldest known dey mention of an "Atlantic" sea cam from Stesichorus around mid-sixth century BC (Sch. A. R. 1. 211):<ref name="MangasPlácido1998">{{Cite book |last=Mangas |first=Julio |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=pZBSML97Ya0C|page=283}} |title=La Península Ibérica en los autores griegos: de Homero a Platón – SLG / (Sch. A. R. 1. 211) |last2=Plácido |first2=Domingo |last3=Elícegui |first3=Elvira Gangutia |last4=Rodríguez Somolinos |first4=Helena |publisher=Editorial Complutense |year=1998 |page=283}}</ref> Atlantikôi pelágei (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντικῷ πελάγει, 'the Atlantic sea', etym. 'Sea of Atlas') den insyd ''The Histories'' of Herodotus around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202.4): Atlantis thalassa (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα, 'Sea of Atlas' anaa 'de Atlantic sea'<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ἀτλαντίς, DGE Diccionario Griego-Español |url=http://dge.cchs.csic.es/xdge/%E1%BC%88%CF%84%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CF%82 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101191304/http://dge.cchs.csic.es/xdge/%E1%BC%88%CF%84%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CF%82 |archive-date=1 January 2018 |website=dge.cchs.csic.es}}</ref>), wer de name dey refer to "de sea beyond de pillars of Hercules" (de Strait of Gibraltar), beyond de Atlas Mountains insyd Morocco den off de West African coast.<ref name="Oxford-Dict" /> Insyd dese uses, de name dey refer to Atlas, de Titan insyd Greek mythology, wey support de heavens den wey later appear as a frontispiece insyd medieval maps den atlases.<ref name="Oxford-Dict">{{Harvnb|Oxford Dictionaries|2015}}</ref> === Water masses === {| class="wikitable floatright" style="font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center;" |+Temperature-salinity characteristics for Atlantic water masses<ref>{{Harvnb|Emery|Meincke|1986}}</ref> !Water mass !Temperature !Salinity |- ! colspan="3" |Upper waters (0–500 m or 0–1,600 ft) |- | align="left" |Atlantic Subarctic<br /><br />Upper Water (ASUW) |0.0–4.0&nbsp;°C |34.0–35.0 |- | align="left" |Western North Atlantic<br /><br />Central Water (WNACW) |7.0–20&nbsp;°C |35.0–36.7 |- | align="left" |Eastern North Atlantic<br /><br />Central Water (ENACW) |8.0–18.0&nbsp;°C |35.2–36.7 |- | align="left" |South Atlantic<br /><br />Central Water (SACW) |5.0–18.0&nbsp;°C |34.3–35.8 |- ! colspan="3" |Intermediate waters (500–1,500 m anaa 1,600–4,900 ft) |- | align="left" |Western Atlantic Subarctic<br /><br />Intermediate Water (WASIW) |3.0–9.0&nbsp;°C |34.0–35.1 |- | align="left" |Eastern Atlantic Subarctic<br /><br />Intermediate Water (EASIW) |3.0–9.0&nbsp;°C |34.4–35.3 |- | align="left" |Mediterranean Water (MW) |2.6–11.0&nbsp;°C |35.0–36.2 |- | align="left" |Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW) |−1.5–3.0&nbsp;°C |34.7–34.9 |- ! colspan="3" |Deep den abyssal waters (1,500&nbsp;m–bottom anaa 4,900&nbsp;ft–bottom) |- | align="left" |North Atlantic<br /><br />Deep Water (NADW) |1.5–4.0&nbsp;°C |34.8–35.0 |- | align="left" |Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) |−0.9–1.7&nbsp;°C |34.6–34.7 |- | align="left" |Arctic Bottom Water (ABW) |−1.8 to −0.5&nbsp;°C |34.9–34.9 |} == References == [[Category:Articles wey dey contain video clips]] <references /> === Sources === * {{cite journal |last1=Acemoglu |first1=Daron |last2=Johnson |first2=Simon |last3=Robinson |first3=James |title=The Rise of Europe: Atlantic Trade, Institutional Change, and Economic Growth |journal=American Economic Review |date=June 2005 |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=546–579 |doi=10.1257/0002828054201305 |hdl=1721.1/64034 }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Acemoglu|Johnson|Robinson|2005}} --> * {{cite journal |last1=Als |first1=Thomas D. |last2=Hansen |first2=Michael M. |last3=Maes |first3=Gregory E. |last4=Castonguay |first4=Martin |last5=Riemann |first5=Lasse |last6=Aarestrup |first6=Kim |last7=Munk |first7=Peter |last8=Sparholt |first8=Henrik |last9=Hanel |first9=Reinhold |last10=Bernatchez |first10=Louis |title=All roads lead to home: panmixia of European eel in the Sargasso Sea |journal=Molecular Ecology |date=April 2011 |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=1333–1346 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05011.x |pmid=21299662 |bibcode=2011MolEc..20.1333A }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Als|Hansen|Maes|Castonguay|2011}} --> * {{cite journal |last1=Avery |first1=Graham |last2=Halkett |first2=David |last3=Orton |first3=Jayson |last4=Steele |first4=Teresa |last5=Tusenius |first5=Madelon |last6=Klein |first6=Richard |title=The Ysterfontein 1 Middle Stone Age Rock Shelter and the Evolution of Coastal Foraging |journal=Goodwin Series |date=2008 |volume=10 |pages=66–89 |jstor=40650020 }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Avery|Halkett|Orton|Steele|2008}} --> * {{cite journal |last1=Bailey |first1=G |last2=Flemming |first2=N |title=Archaeology of the continental shelf: Marine resources, submerged landscapes and underwater archaeology |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=November 2008 |volume=27 |issue=23–24 |pages=2153–2165 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.08.012 |bibcode=2008QSRv...27.2153B }}<!-- {{Harvnb|Bailey|Flemming|2008}} --> * {{cite journal |last1=Bigg |first1=G. 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Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp. 855–857. * {{Cite book|title=Atlantic: A Vast Ocean of a Million Stories|last=Winchester|first=Simon|publisher=HarperCollins UK|year=2010|isbn=978-0-00-734137-5|author-link=Simon Winchester}} [[Category:Articles wey dey contain video clips]] == External links == {{Sister project links|voy=Atlantic Ocean|wikt=Atlantic Ocean|commons=Atlantic Ocean|q=Atlantic Ocean|v=no|n=no|s=CIA World Fact Book, 2004/Atlantic Ocean|b=no}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090829012101/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/geoghist/histories/history/hiscountries/A/atlanticocean.html Atlantic Ocean]. Cartage.org.lb (archived) * [https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3320.lh000817/ "Map of Atlantic Coast of North America from the Chesapeake Bay to Florida"] from 1639 via the Library of Congress {{Authority control}} [[Category:Atlantic Ocean| ]] [[Category:Oceans]] [[Category:History of de Atlantic Ocean| ]] [[Category:Landforms of de Atlantic Ocean| ]] [[Category:Oceans wey dey surround Antarctica]] 3gqkyvenny5unuudwb7mpr14ai91nh1 0 27148 99533 2026-06-01T17:21:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99533 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]]. 8f1n4agokfon51fxwa3cp5i2vwf0r1o 99534 99533 2026-06-01T17:23:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99534 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]]. E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains. 14mkpkegogev2pob0ieu0u7ppmsbagn 99535 99534 2026-06-01T17:23:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 a 99535 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]]. E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains. Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. ozlhe34i0hm4zpj5fuh76xqxhfli6b5 99536 99535 2026-06-01T17:24:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99536 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]]. E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains. Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. 0be1v7tkg8056mholiepuricm0mh2c3 99537 99536 2026-06-01T17:25:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99537 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]]. E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains. Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. ft5cwy9jeg9seyxele4eha9g42tsvyl 99538 99537 2026-06-01T17:27:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99538 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains. Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. k423n6ryxk3z01qbldqzmxpcmxb13ah 99539 99538 2026-06-01T17:28:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99539 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. 5f6sz1l35y31bsohbwar1kgupnzdlh5 99540 99539 2026-06-01T17:28:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99540 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. == References == k4yi74scs7usd7c0hb0u1lk0jbxz5v0 99541 99540 2026-06-01T17:35:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99541 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. == References == 2ea6xr1uu8nxv74urxasdmtjhrmm88r 99548 99541 2026-06-01T18:17:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99548 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. == References == jt3mkjew2gvfcwzlnhfj4clr11gqwqa 99549 99548 2026-06-01T18:18:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99549 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. == References == 7hlgs7qt57j9y39el1dd55r4z2igf7i 99550 99549 2026-06-01T18:23:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99550 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself. == References == k9vn706a3u24bedts3p02nmg9pi1vik 99551 99550 2026-06-01T18:24:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99551 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself. E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. == References == sk9qi523ah8pzu97u6qgiehnfq6f1w0 99552 99551 2026-06-01T18:25:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99552 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself. E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. == References == d27bybp926a23xj1sqak4cfn499ai1a 99553 99552 2026-06-01T18:26:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99553 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself. E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd. == References == 8o5czw0824k0dq3d2fxgucx8wlqyya5 99554 99553 2026-06-01T18:27:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99554 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself. E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd. During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well. == References == q3cesfgazkyjamkint0za60f5muefp6 99555 99554 2026-06-01T18:28:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99555 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself. E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd. During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well. De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project. == References == togsaby1tobwxwfo4lertlbj3h1ahf1 99556 99555 2026-06-01T18:29:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99556 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself. E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd. During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well. De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project. Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats. == References == sugbcsom55a0b1x0kxy8mkqzohfbwia 99557 99556 2026-06-01T18:33:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99557 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd. During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well. De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project. Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats. == References == fzl4nhg0zo5dt2x5k5vcmms7aaordbx 99558 99557 2026-06-01T18:35:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99558 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well. De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project. Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats. == References == ble7gthvh0zwhl3g4ak05uwyq55fk0m 99559 99558 2026-06-01T18:39:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99559 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project. Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats. == References == qjoiguc7xrhu0835220exqkcxv27ehr 99560 99559 2026-06-01T18:40:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99560 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats. == References == lrmi2m74uayerb8xh7qvhie9gga5avb 99561 99560 2026-06-01T18:40:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99561 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref> == References == b6sg4jnhd3pggq5l7z8c5yr1eyvlbcj 99563 99561 2026-06-01T18:41:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99563 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> == References == 07fbbvedvdyk945rzdaz6cmogd183or 99565 99563 2026-06-01T18:42:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99565 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == References == fwfhcqz2fgq36ezeqa8sxq2r4d30bql 99566 99565 2026-06-01T18:43:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99566 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == == References == h4y64af6lc4osqxq1wbi7xe9kkhf5t7 99567 99566 2026-06-01T18:44:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99567 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. == References == 2q68z5exyhzkrb5ba5876077tf1h9ak 99568 99567 2026-06-01T18:55:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99568 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW). == References == a87lunbuup7bvgmkzpvueic1faspe88 99569 99568 2026-06-01T18:58:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99569 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref> == References == 0mql06c6blbn05wgw55ufc1ztl8p60j 99570 99569 2026-06-01T18:59:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99570 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> == References == 2vhwsi51p0ly3yn855q3a7tbnsfwas0 99571 99570 2026-06-01T18:59:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99571 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref> == References == 3o3j98vginya38f7s0gc5pab6fvg9tg 99572 99571 2026-06-01T19:01:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99572 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> == References == 4869y5sxlhxikxkwk4m1r7pdk883n7u 99573 99572 2026-06-01T19:02:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99573 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. == References == 51p6muzj3pib6mbcetkhy9csbkhs65p 99574 99573 2026-06-01T19:03:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99574 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. == References == ma9ompvns4urzo6a3hz6ckw1emqmi9y 99575 99574 2026-06-01T19:04:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99575 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. == References == 29q18ojap010m6dz912kslgvmbmw7fk 99576 99575 2026-06-01T19:05:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99576 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get. == References == iofq3y2pynsu2jzq28lz63tg3fs50k2 99577 99576 2026-06-01T19:06:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99577 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get. Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables. == References == tvm34gh63ni45eoeb8ioggil1qqse4u 99578 99577 2026-06-01T19:08:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99578 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables. == References == kr06ou8vrdr8vu5b1mj5mty957ql6w1 99579 99578 2026-06-01T19:09:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99579 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}</ref> == References == 1in740ixcn74o7ti7hbtr0nquyhj4fn 99580 99579 2026-06-01T19:12:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99580 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}</ref> == Eponyms == Dem name Two species of African reptiles after de Tana River: ''[[:en:Mochlus_tanae|Mochlus tanae]]'' den ''[[:en:Myriopholis|Myriopholis tanae]]''. == References == qjbw03wscu0gsxssgw0mntkbk6exr1j 99581 99580 2026-06-01T19:13:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99581 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}</ref> == Eponyms == Dem name Two species of African reptiles after de Tana River: ''[[:en:Mochlus_tanae|Mochlus tanae]]'' den ''[[:en:Myriopholis|Myriopholis tanae]]''.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Tana", p. 260).</ref> == References == na9w3mkbox9nv35vdpa8m8wef0a9xwf 99582 99581 2026-06-01T19:14:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99582 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}</ref> == Eponyms == Dem name Two species of African reptiles after de Tana River: ''[[:en:Mochlus_tanae|Mochlus tanae]]'' den ''[[:en:Myriopholis|Myriopholis tanae]]''.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Tana", p. 260).</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Tana_River_Primate_Reserve|Tana River Primate Reserve]] == References == 1osa31qgp3m0fk6ndy5m9v71h2gkvkj 99583 99582 2026-06-01T19:15:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99583 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}</ref> == Eponyms == Dem name Two species of African reptiles after de Tana River: ''[[:en:Mochlus_tanae|Mochlus tanae]]'' den ''[[:en:Myriopholis|Myriopholis tanae]]''.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Tana", p. 260).</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Tana_River_Primate_Reserve|Tana River Primate Reserve]] * [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]] == References == cl3ukfkkx5mbyvg71unsse7c4mxbbjh 99584 99583 2026-06-01T19:16:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99584 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}</ref> == Eponyms == Dem name Two species of African reptiles after de Tana River: ''[[:en:Mochlus_tanae|Mochlus tanae]]'' den ''[[:en:Myriopholis|Myriopholis tanae]]''.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Tana", p. 260).</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Tana_River_Primate_Reserve|Tana River Primate Reserve]] * [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]] * [[:en:Galana_Kulalu_Project|Galana Kulalu Project]] == References == itgrfapjrap7yireoo9byh7jojaiocj 99585 99584 2026-06-01T19:19:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99585 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}</ref> == Eponyms == Dem name Two species of African reptiles after de Tana River: ''[[:en:Mochlus_tanae|Mochlus tanae]]'' den ''[[:en:Myriopholis|Myriopholis tanae]]''.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Tana", p. 260).</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Tana_River_Primate_Reserve|Tana River Primate Reserve]] * [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]] * [[:en:Galana_Kulalu_Project|Galana Kulalu Project]] == References == <references /> == External links == * http://www.kenweb.or.ke/index.php/projects/tana-delta.html ohnaqhrggicv34oupelegwjuf5wx3w4 99587 99585 2026-06-01T19:27:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99587 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}</ref> == Eponyms == Dem name Two species of African reptiles after de Tana River: ''[[:en:Mochlus_tanae|Mochlus tanae]]'' den ''[[:en:Myriopholis|Myriopholis tanae]]''.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Tana", p. 260).</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Tana_River_Primate_Reserve|Tana River Primate Reserve]] * [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]] * [[:en:Galana_Kulalu_Project|Galana Kulalu Project]] == References == <references /> == External links == * http://www.kenweb.or.ke/index.php/projects/tana-delta.html == Further reading == 3il9vtovsd8pv1lor9p07glbr0mws0v 99588 99587 2026-06-01T19:29:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99588 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}</ref> == Eponyms == Dem name Two species of African reptiles after de Tana River: ''[[:en:Mochlus_tanae|Mochlus tanae]]'' den ''[[:en:Myriopholis|Myriopholis tanae]]''.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Tana", p. 260).</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Tana_River_Primate_Reserve|Tana River Primate Reserve]] * [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]] * [[:en:Galana_Kulalu_Project|Galana Kulalu Project]] == References == <references /> == External links == * http://www.kenweb.or.ke/index.php/projects/tana-delta.html == Further reading == * [http://www.hydrology.nl/mainnews/1-latest-news/377-securing-water-and-land-in-the-tana-basin-kenya-a-resource-book-for-water-managers-and-practitioners.html Securing water den land for de Tana Basin insyd, Kenya: a resource book give water managers den practitioners] lth692tmmalr7u6beyjdu2kn5krbkde 99589 99588 2026-06-01T19:34:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99589 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}</ref> == Eponyms == Dem name Two species of African reptiles after de Tana River: ''[[:en:Mochlus_tanae|Mochlus tanae]]'' den ''[[:en:Myriopholis|Myriopholis tanae]]''.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Tana", p. 260).</ref> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Tana_River_Primate_Reserve|Tana River Primate Reserve]] * [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]] * [[:en:Galana_Kulalu_Project|Galana Kulalu Project]] == References == <references /> == External links == * http://www.kenweb.or.ke/index.php/projects/tana-delta.html == Further reading == * [http://www.hydrology.nl/mainnews/1-latest-news/377-securing-water-and-land-in-the-tana-basin-kenya-a-resource-book-for-water-managers-and-practitioners.html Securing water den land for de Tana Basin insyd, Kenya: a resource book give water managers den practitioners] * "Den de River Flow Top; An Adventurous Journey Down de Tana River" by James Meester 1958 hjy9jzsbxmpqif373sei1dz44sci41m 99603 99589 2026-06-01T22:28:56Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99603 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakaegawa |first1=Tosiyuki |last2=Wachana |first2=Calistus |last3=Group |first3=KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling |date=2012 |title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article |journal=Hydrological Research Letters |volume=6 |pages=29–34 |bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N |doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}</ref> == Eponyms == Dem name Two species of African reptiles after de Tana River: ''[[:en:Mochlus_tanae|Mochlus tanae]]'' den ''[[:en:Myriopholis|Myriopholis tanae]]''.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Tana", p. 260).</ref> == References == <references /> ==Read further== *[http://www.hydrology.nl/mainnews/1-latest-news/377-securing-water-and-land-in-the-tana-basin-kenya-a-resource-book-for-water-managers-and-practitioners.html Securing water and land in the Tana Basin, Kenya: a resource book for water managers and practitioners] * "And the River Flowed On; An Adventurous Journey Down the Tana River" by James Meester 1958 ==External links== {{Commons}} * [http://www.kenweb.or.ke/index.php/projects/tana-delta.html "Tana River Delta"]. ''The Kenya Wetlands Biodiversity Research Team''. Retrieved 2026-06-01. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Tana River (Kenya)| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] [[Category:African drainage basins of de Indian Ocean]] [[Category:Garissa County]] [[Category:Meru County]] [[Category:Tana River County]] [[Category:Mount Kenya]] oo6dp66psid515sqcfq2s1hkbluwteo 99604 99603 2026-06-01T22:30:46Z DaSupremo 9 Fix reference 99604 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Tana River''' be de longest [[:en:River|river]] for [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de [[:en:Tana_River_County|Tana River County]].<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name">Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). "First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century," [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].</ref> E be ca. 1000&#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&#x20;km² den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&#x20;km thru semi-den plains.<ref>(Omengo, Fred & Geeraert, Naomi & Bouillon, Steven & Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]</ref> Ein [[:en:Tributary|tributaries]] dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like [[:en:Thika_River|Thika]], Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for [[:en:Nyeri|Nyeri]] insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de [[:en:Massif|massif]] of [[:en:Mount_Kenya|Mount Kenya]] den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean. Below de [[:en:Tana_River_(Kenya)#Dams|dams]], de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de [[:en:Meru,_Kenya|Meru]] den North [[:en:Kitui_County|Kitui]] den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of [[:en:Garissa|Garissa]], [[:en:Hola,_Kenya|Hola]] den [[:en:Garsen|Garsen]] before e enter de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]] at de [[:en:Ungwana_Bay|Ungwana Bay]]-[[:en:Kipini|Kipini]] area, at de end of a [[:en:River_delta|river delta]] dat dey reach roughly 30&#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.<ref name="The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name" /> E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem. Annual flow dey above 5,000 million [[:en:Cubic_meters|cubic meters]] (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.<ref>Hughes, F. (1990). "The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya," [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].</ref> During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.<ref>Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). "Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya," [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].</ref> De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|Bura Irrigation]] [[:en:Bura_Irrigation_and_Settlement_Project_(Kenya)|den Settlement Project]], Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.<ref>Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.</ref> Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[:en:Climate_change|climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nakaegawa|first1=Tosiyuki|last2=Wachana|first2=Calistus|date=2012|title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article|journal=Hydrological Research Letters|volume=6|pages=29–34|doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29|bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Dams == Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de [[:en:Masinga_Dam|Masinga Dam]] (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de [[:en:Kamburu_Dam|Kamburu Dam]] (1974, 94.20MW), de [[:en:Gitaru_Dam|Gitaru Dam]] (1978, 225.25MW), de [[:en:Kindaruma_Dam|Kindaruma Dam]] (1968, 72MW) den de [[:en:Kiambere_Dam|Kiambere Dam]] (1988, 168MW).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}</ref> en <ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&catid=33:power-stations}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}</ref> De [[:en:Masinga_Reservoir|Masinga Reservoir]] den de [[:en:Kiambere_Reservoir|Kiambere Reservoir]], wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: [[:en:Hydro-electric_power|hydro-electric power]] (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}</ref> Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}</ref> == Eponyms == Dem name Two species of African reptiles after de Tana River: ''[[:en:Mochlus_tanae|Mochlus tanae]]'' den ''[[:en:Myriopholis|Myriopholis tanae]]''.<ref>Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. ("Tana", p. 260).</ref> == References == <references /> ==Read further== *[http://www.hydrology.nl/mainnews/1-latest-news/377-securing-water-and-land-in-the-tana-basin-kenya-a-resource-book-for-water-managers-and-practitioners.html Securing water and land in the Tana Basin, Kenya: a resource book for water managers and practitioners] * "And the River Flowed On; An Adventurous Journey Down the Tana River" by James Meester 1958 ==External links== {{Commons}} * [http://www.kenweb.or.ke/index.php/projects/tana-delta.html "Tana River Delta"]. ''The Kenya Wetlands Biodiversity Research Team''. Retrieved 2026-06-01. {{Authority control}} [[Category:Tana River (Kenya)| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] [[Category:African drainage basins of de Indian Ocean]] [[Category:Garissa County]] [[Category:Meru County]] [[Category:Tana River County]] [[Category:Mount Kenya]] 6z0pso7licgojis8409thg0obvs3awe 14 27149 99545 2026-06-01T17:56:19Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99545 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27150 99546 2026-06-01T17:56:31Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99546 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27151 99547 2026-06-01T18:02:52Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1356942059|Nile]]" 99547 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Nile''' be a major north-flowing river insyd northeast [[Africa]] wich dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea. At 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) long, e be de longest river insyd de world, although de volume of water e dey carry be much smaller dan oda major rivers such as de Amazon anaa de Congo. De Nile play a central role insyd de environmental, economic, den cultural history of Africa for millennia. De Nile get two major tributaries: de [[White Nile]] den de [[Blue Nile]]. De White Nile be longer wey be considered to be de headwaters, yet de Blue Nile dey contribute over twice de volume of de White Nile. De White Nile dey begin near Lake Victoria den dey flow thru [[Uganda]] den [[South Sudan]]; while de Blue Nile dey begin near Lake Tana insyd [[Ethiopia]] den dey flow into [[Sudan]] from de southeast. De two rivers dey meet at de Sudanese capital of Khartoum. From der, de Nile dey flow north thru de Nubian Desert to Egypt ein capital, Cairo, den finally dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria, wer e form a large river delta. Geologically, de Nile be a young river wey e follow ein present course for about 15,000 years. Ein drainage basin dey extend across eleven countries. Chaw of de water insyd de Nile dey cam from rainfall insyd de upstream countries [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], den [[Uganda]]. Downstream countries – [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], den [[South Sudan]] – be primarily desert, den withdraw river water for irrigation. Oda countries wey lie wholly anaa partly insyd de Nile Basin be [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eritrea]], den [[Rwanda]]. De Nile be de foundation of de Ancient Egyptian civilization, wich rely on de river for nearly every aspect of life. De annual flooding of de river deposit nutrient-rich silt along de riverbanks. Dis soil support crops wey enable a sophisticated society to thrive insyd an otherwise inhospitable desert. De Nile facilitate trade, communication, transportation, den governance. South (upstream) of de second Nile cataract lay Nubia, de historical home of de ancient Kerma culture den de Kushite Empire. Na chaw Europeans be fascinated by de Nile, den dema explorations around Lake Victoria insyd de late 19th century locate de source of de river. Among de cultures wey live along de Nile insyd de modern era be de Nilotic peoples, semi-nomadic cattle herders wey practice nomadic pastoralism, wey dey move dema cattle seasonally in response to de Nile ein floods. Insyd de modern era, de Nile dey play a critical role insyd de economies of Egypt den Sudan, wich dey rely on am to irrigate extensive croplands. Since de late 20th century, na dem build over a dozen dams insyd de Nile Basin to provide for irrigation den to generate electricity. De dams alter de river ein annual flood cycle wey e restrict de transport of silt downstream, wey dey cause de Nile Delta to shrink. Sam dams – such as de Aswan High Dam den Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – be de source of international political disputes about water scarcity, safety, food security, den forced displacement of peoples. == Names den etymology == De English word "Nile" be derived from de Latin Nilus den de Ancient Greek Νεῖλος (Neilos), wich possibly originate from de Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey dey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} == References == 68cgqoxvknjawxnnwc36mezgdwen17i 99613 99547 2026-06-01T23:38:30Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99613 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile''' be a major north-flowing river insyd northeast [[Africa]] wich dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea. At 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) long, e be de longest river insyd de world, although de volume of water e dey carry be much smaller dan oda major rivers such as de Amazon anaa de Congo. De Nile play a central role insyd de environmental, economic, den cultural history of Africa for millennia. De Nile get two major tributaries: de [[White Nile]] den de [[Blue Nile]]. De White Nile be longer wey be considered to be de headwaters, yet de Blue Nile dey contribute over twice de volume of de White Nile. De White Nile dey begin near Lake Victoria den dey flow thru [[Uganda]] den [[South Sudan]]; while de Blue Nile dey begin near Lake Tana insyd [[Ethiopia]] den dey flow into [[Sudan]] from de southeast. De two rivers dey meet at de Sudanese capital of Khartoum. From der, de Nile dey flow north thru de Nubian Desert to Egypt ein capital, Cairo, den finally dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria, wer e form a large river delta. Geologically, de Nile be a young river wey e follow ein present course for about 15,000 years. Ein drainage basin dey extend across eleven countries. Chaw of de water insyd de Nile dey cam from rainfall insyd de upstream countries [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], den [[Uganda]]. Downstream countries – [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], den [[South Sudan]] – be primarily desert, den withdraw river water for irrigation. Oda countries wey lie wholly anaa partly insyd de Nile Basin be [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eritrea]], den [[Rwanda]]. De Nile be de foundation of de Ancient Egyptian civilization, wich rely on de river for nearly every aspect of life. De annual flooding of de river deposit nutrient-rich silt along de riverbanks. Dis soil support crops wey enable a sophisticated society to thrive insyd an otherwise inhospitable desert. De Nile facilitate trade, communication, transportation, den governance. South (upstream) of de second Nile cataract lay Nubia, de historical home of de ancient Kerma culture den de Kushite Empire. Na chaw Europeans be fascinated by de Nile, den dema explorations around Lake Victoria insyd de late 19th century locate de source of de river. Among de cultures wey live along de Nile insyd de modern era be de Nilotic peoples, semi-nomadic cattle herders wey practice nomadic pastoralism, wey dey move dema cattle seasonally in response to de Nile ein floods. Insyd de modern era, de Nile dey play a critical role insyd de economies of Egypt den Sudan, wich dey rely on am to irrigate extensive croplands. Since de late 20th century, na dem build over a dozen dams insyd de Nile Basin to provide for irrigation den to generate electricity. De dams alter de river ein annual flood cycle wey e restrict de transport of silt downstream, wey dey cause de Nile Delta to shrink. Sam dams – such as de Aswan High Dam den Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – be de source of international political disputes about water scarcity, safety, food security, den forced displacement of peoples. == Names den etymology == De English word "Nile" be derived from de Latin Nilus den de Ancient Greek Νεῖλος (Neilos), wich possibly originate from de Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey dey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Several tributaries (smaller rivers wey merge into de Nile) den segments of de river incorporate "Nile" insyd dema names, wey dey include: * Albert Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert to Nimule * Black Nile{{snd}}An alternate name give de [[Atbarah River]] * [[Blue Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Kyoga Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile{{snd}}Segment of de Nile downstream from de confluence of Blue Nile den White Nile{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile from de mountains of Uganda to de plains of South Sudan{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}}<!-- {{efn|The Mountain Nile is also called ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' or ''Baḥr el-Jebel'' in Arabic. }} --> * Victoria Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from [[Lake Victoria]] to Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * [[White Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Yellow Nile{{snd}}De Wadi Howar, remnant of an ancient tributary wey dry up several thousand years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} == References == ftu2qj8h338o2tv6075z531l0a06f2g 99614 99613 2026-06-01T23:56:07Z DaSupremo 9 /* Hydrology */ Improve article 99614 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile''' be a major north-flowing river insyd northeast [[Africa]] wich dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea. At 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) long, e be de longest river insyd de world, although de volume of water e dey carry be much smaller dan oda major rivers such as de Amazon anaa de Congo. De Nile play a central role insyd de environmental, economic, den cultural history of Africa for millennia. De Nile get two major tributaries: de [[White Nile]] den de [[Blue Nile]]. De White Nile be longer wey be considered to be de headwaters, yet de Blue Nile dey contribute over twice de volume of de White Nile. De White Nile dey begin near Lake Victoria den dey flow thru [[Uganda]] den [[South Sudan]]; while de Blue Nile dey begin near Lake Tana insyd [[Ethiopia]] den dey flow into [[Sudan]] from de southeast. De two rivers dey meet at de Sudanese capital of Khartoum. From der, de Nile dey flow north thru de Nubian Desert to Egypt ein capital, Cairo, den finally dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria, wer e form a large river delta. Geologically, de Nile be a young river wey e follow ein present course for about 15,000 years. Ein drainage basin dey extend across eleven countries. Chaw of de water insyd de Nile dey cam from rainfall insyd de upstream countries [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], den [[Uganda]]. Downstream countries – [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], den [[South Sudan]] – be primarily desert, den withdraw river water for irrigation. Oda countries wey lie wholly anaa partly insyd de Nile Basin be [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eritrea]], den [[Rwanda]]. De Nile be de foundation of de Ancient Egyptian civilization, wich rely on de river for nearly every aspect of life. De annual flooding of de river deposit nutrient-rich silt along de riverbanks. Dis soil support crops wey enable a sophisticated society to thrive insyd an otherwise inhospitable desert. De Nile facilitate trade, communication, transportation, den governance. South (upstream) of de second Nile cataract lay Nubia, de historical home of de ancient Kerma culture den de Kushite Empire. Na chaw Europeans be fascinated by de Nile, den dema explorations around Lake Victoria insyd de late 19th century locate de source of de river. Among de cultures wey live along de Nile insyd de modern era be de Nilotic peoples, semi-nomadic cattle herders wey practice nomadic pastoralism, wey dey move dema cattle seasonally in response to de Nile ein floods. Insyd de modern era, de Nile dey play a critical role insyd de economies of Egypt den Sudan, wich dey rely on am to irrigate extensive croplands. Since de late 20th century, na dem build over a dozen dams insyd de Nile Basin to provide for irrigation den to generate electricity. De dams alter de river ein annual flood cycle wey e restrict de transport of silt downstream, wey dey cause de Nile Delta to shrink. Sam dams – such as de Aswan High Dam den Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – be de source of international political disputes about water scarcity, safety, food security, den forced displacement of peoples. == Names den etymology == De English word "Nile" be derived from de Latin Nilus den de Ancient Greek Νεῖλος (Neilos), wich possibly originate from de Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey dey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Several tributaries (smaller rivers wey merge into de Nile) den segments of de river incorporate "Nile" insyd dema names, wey dey include: * Albert Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert to Nimule * Black Nile{{snd}}An alternate name give de [[Atbarah River]] * [[Blue Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Kyoga Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile{{snd}}Segment of de Nile downstream from de confluence of Blue Nile den White Nile{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile from de mountains of Uganda to de plains of South Sudan{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}}<!-- {{efn|The Mountain Nile is also called ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' or ''Baḥr el-Jebel'' in Arabic. }} --> * Victoria Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from [[Lake Victoria]] to Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * [[White Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Yellow Nile{{snd}}De Wadi Howar, remnant of an ancient tributary wey dry up several thousand years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} ==Hydrology== <!-- {{Image frame |align=right |caption = The flow of the Nile varies widely throughout the year.<br>Rates (m{{super|3}}/sec) measured at [[Dongola]] on the main Nile.<br>Data collected before construction of [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]].{{sfn|"Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}} |content= {{ #invoke:Chart | bar-chart | group 1 = 1285.7 : 1006.0 : 831.3 : 881.7 : 828.7: 845.2 : 1930.3 : 6984.0 : 7866.5 : 4895.2 : 2510.8 : 1596.9 | colors = lightblue | group names = Flow | x legends = J : F: M:A:M:J:J:A:S:O:N:D }} }} --> === Sediment transport === * Gilgel Abay, Ethiopia : 7.6 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 0.7% of bedload * El Deim (at de border of Ethiopia den Sudan): 140 million tonnes{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}} * Aswan, Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 28% of bedload * Beni Sweif, Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 20% of bedload * Qena, Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 27% of bedload * Sohag, Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 13% of bedload ===Water sources den sinks=== ====Sources and sinks: countries==== De following table dey summarize water balance measurements give countries within de Nile Basin. Portions of countries outsyd de Nile Basin be excluded from de values. {| class="wikitable" |+ Key for "Source/Sink" columns |- | Source || De country be a significant water source |- | Sink || De country be a significant water sink |- | Neutral || De country no be a significant source anaa sink |} <!-- The data includes the following: * Per-basin data: land surface area, [[precipitation]], [[evapotranspiration]], [[surface runoff]] * Per-station data: [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]] --> {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Country water balance (annual){{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8640|loc=Table 5}} ! scope="col" | Country ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | [[Burundi]] | Neutral (2) || 13,240|| 14 || 13 || 3 |- ! scope="row" |[[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]] | Neutral (0) || 19,919|| 23 || 23 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Egypt]] | Sink (−39) || 235,108 || 4 || 44 || 0 |- ! scope="row" | [[Eritrea]] | Neutral (2) || 24,427 || 14 || 12 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Ethiopia]] | Source (164) || 363,775 || 459 || 295 || 138 |- ! scope="row" |[[Kenya]] | Source (27) || 49,513 || 76 || 49 || 23 |- ! scope="row" | [[Rwanda]] | Neutral (1) || 20,676 || 21 || 20 || 4 |- ! scope="row" |[[South Sudan]] | Sink (−146) || 617,256 || 612 || 757 ||92 |- ! scope="row" |[[Sudan]] | Sink (−81) || 1,226,660 || 364 || 445 ||23 |- ! scope="row" |[[Tanzania]] | Source (38) || 120,506 || 160 || 122 || 18 |- ! scope="row" | [[Uganda]] | Source (25) || 236,763 || 301 || 276 ||22 |- ! scope="row" | Total | || 2,927,843 || 2,048 || 2,056 || 324 |} ====Sources den sinks: geographic basins==== [[File:Nile River discharge flow gauge locations.svg|thumb|De water balance tables of dis article dey contain water flow information dem measure at de twelve stations dem show insyd dis map.<ref name=HydroData/>|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile River is drawn, and there are a dozen landmarks shown on the map, at various points of the river]] {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible mw-uncollapsed nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Geographic basin water balance (annual)<ref name=HydroData>{{harvnb|Senay|2014|loc=Tables 3,4,5 and 6; Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink)}}.</ref> ! scope="col" | Basin's<br />downstream<br />station ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | 1 [[Lake Victoria]] outlet | Source (74) || 264,259 || 353 || 279 || 57 |- ! scope="row" | 2 Murchison Falls | Source (15) || 85,513 || 109 || 94 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |3 Mongalla | Neutral (1) || 131,691 || 159 || 158 || 5 |- ! scope="row" | 4 Malakal | Sink (−159) || 925,160|| 798 || 957 || 150 |- ! scope="row" |5 Khartoum |Sink (−40) || 257,130 || 134 || 174 || 14 |- ! scope="row" | 6 Dam{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}} | Source (105) || 188,296|| 246 || 142 || 70 |- ! scope="row" |7 Khartoum | Neutral (10) || 118,651|| 96 || 72 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |8 Khashm el Girba | Source (30) || 100,318|| 95 || 66 || 10 |- ! scope="row" | 9 Mouth of [[Atbarah River]] | Neutral (−3) || 104,051 || 22 || 25 || 1 |- ! scope="row" | 11 Aswan Dam{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}} | Sink (−10) || 188,011||2 || 13 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |12 Cairo/Delta | Sink (−10) || 145,293||3 || 12 || 0 |} == References == 7n7dq3bghrrt8oe1q2btcur10lyjbxt 99615 99614 2026-06-02T00:07:59Z DaSupremo 9 /* Economy */ Improve article 99615 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile''' be a major north-flowing river insyd northeast [[Africa]] wich dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea. At 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) long, e be de longest river insyd de world, although de volume of water e dey carry be much smaller dan oda major rivers such as de Amazon anaa de Congo. De Nile play a central role insyd de environmental, economic, den cultural history of Africa for millennia. De Nile get two major tributaries: de [[White Nile]] den de [[Blue Nile]]. De White Nile be longer wey be considered to be de headwaters, yet de Blue Nile dey contribute over twice de volume of de White Nile. De White Nile dey begin near Lake Victoria den dey flow thru [[Uganda]] den [[South Sudan]]; while de Blue Nile dey begin near Lake Tana insyd [[Ethiopia]] den dey flow into [[Sudan]] from de southeast. De two rivers dey meet at de Sudanese capital of Khartoum. From der, de Nile dey flow north thru de Nubian Desert to Egypt ein capital, Cairo, den finally dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria, wer e form a large river delta. Geologically, de Nile be a young river wey e follow ein present course for about 15,000 years. Ein drainage basin dey extend across eleven countries. Chaw of de water insyd de Nile dey cam from rainfall insyd de upstream countries [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], den [[Uganda]]. Downstream countries – [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], den [[South Sudan]] – be primarily desert, den withdraw river water for irrigation. Oda countries wey lie wholly anaa partly insyd de Nile Basin be [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eritrea]], den [[Rwanda]]. De Nile be de foundation of de Ancient Egyptian civilization, wich rely on de river for nearly every aspect of life. De annual flooding of de river deposit nutrient-rich silt along de riverbanks. Dis soil support crops wey enable a sophisticated society to thrive insyd an otherwise inhospitable desert. De Nile facilitate trade, communication, transportation, den governance. South (upstream) of de second Nile cataract lay Nubia, de historical home of de ancient Kerma culture den de Kushite Empire. Na chaw Europeans be fascinated by de Nile, den dema explorations around Lake Victoria insyd de late 19th century locate de source of de river. Among de cultures wey live along de Nile insyd de modern era be de Nilotic peoples, semi-nomadic cattle herders wey practice nomadic pastoralism, wey dey move dema cattle seasonally in response to de Nile ein floods. Insyd de modern era, de Nile dey play a critical role insyd de economies of Egypt den Sudan, wich dey rely on am to irrigate extensive croplands. Since de late 20th century, na dem build over a dozen dams insyd de Nile Basin to provide for irrigation den to generate electricity. De dams alter de river ein annual flood cycle wey e restrict de transport of silt downstream, wey dey cause de Nile Delta to shrink. Sam dams – such as de Aswan High Dam den Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – be de source of international political disputes about water scarcity, safety, food security, den forced displacement of peoples. == Names den etymology == De English word "Nile" be derived from de Latin Nilus den de Ancient Greek Νεῖλος (Neilos), wich possibly originate from de Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey dey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Several tributaries (smaller rivers wey merge into de Nile) den segments of de river incorporate "Nile" insyd dema names, wey dey include: * Albert Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert to Nimule * Black Nile{{snd}}An alternate name give de [[Atbarah River]] * [[Blue Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Kyoga Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile{{snd}}Segment of de Nile downstream from de confluence of Blue Nile den White Nile{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile from de mountains of Uganda to de plains of South Sudan{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}}<!-- {{efn|The Mountain Nile is also called ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' or ''Baḥr el-Jebel'' in Arabic. }} --> * Victoria Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from [[Lake Victoria]] to Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * [[White Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Yellow Nile{{snd}}De Wadi Howar, remnant of an ancient tributary wey dry up several thousand years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} ==Hydrology== <!-- {{Image frame |align=right |caption = The flow of the Nile varies widely throughout the year.<br>Rates (m{{super|3}}/sec) measured at [[Dongola]] on the main Nile.<br>Data collected before construction of [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]].{{sfn|"Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}} |content= {{ #invoke:Chart | bar-chart | group 1 = 1285.7 : 1006.0 : 831.3 : 881.7 : 828.7: 845.2 : 1930.3 : 6984.0 : 7866.5 : 4895.2 : 2510.8 : 1596.9 | colors = lightblue | group names = Flow | x legends = J : F: M:A:M:J:J:A:S:O:N:D }} }} --> === Sediment transport === * Gilgel Abay, Ethiopia : 7.6 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 0.7% of bedload * El Deim (at de border of Ethiopia den Sudan): 140 million tonnes{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}} * Aswan, Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 28% of bedload * Beni Sweif, Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 20% of bedload * Qena, Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 27% of bedload * Sohag, Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 13% of bedload ===Water sources den sinks=== ====Sources and sinks: countries==== De following table dey summarize water balance measurements give countries within de Nile Basin. Portions of countries outsyd de Nile Basin be excluded from de values. {| class="wikitable" |+ Key for "Source/Sink" columns |- | Source || De country be a significant water source |- | Sink || De country be a significant water sink |- | Neutral || De country no be a significant source anaa sink |} <!-- The data includes the following: * Per-basin data: land surface area, [[precipitation]], [[evapotranspiration]], [[surface runoff]] * Per-station data: [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]] --> {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Country water balance (annual){{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8640|loc=Table 5}} ! scope="col" | Country ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | [[Burundi]] | Neutral (2) || 13,240|| 14 || 13 || 3 |- ! scope="row" |[[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]] | Neutral (0) || 19,919|| 23 || 23 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Egypt]] | Sink (−39) || 235,108 || 4 || 44 || 0 |- ! scope="row" | [[Eritrea]] | Neutral (2) || 24,427 || 14 || 12 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Ethiopia]] | Source (164) || 363,775 || 459 || 295 || 138 |- ! scope="row" |[[Kenya]] | Source (27) || 49,513 || 76 || 49 || 23 |- ! scope="row" | [[Rwanda]] | Neutral (1) || 20,676 || 21 || 20 || 4 |- ! scope="row" |[[South Sudan]] | Sink (−146) || 617,256 || 612 || 757 ||92 |- ! scope="row" |[[Sudan]] | Sink (−81) || 1,226,660 || 364 || 445 ||23 |- ! scope="row" |[[Tanzania]] | Source (38) || 120,506 || 160 || 122 || 18 |- ! scope="row" | [[Uganda]] | Source (25) || 236,763 || 301 || 276 ||22 |- ! scope="row" | Total | || 2,927,843 || 2,048 || 2,056 || 324 |} ====Sources den sinks: geographic basins==== [[File:Nile River discharge flow gauge locations.svg|thumb|De water balance tables of dis article dey contain water flow information dem measure at de twelve stations dem show insyd dis map.<ref name=HydroData/>|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile River is drawn, and there are a dozen landmarks shown on the map, at various points of the river]] {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible mw-uncollapsed nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Geographic basin water balance (annual)<ref name=HydroData>{{harvnb|Senay|2014|loc=Tables 3,4,5 and 6; Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink)}}.</ref> ! scope="col" | Basin's<br />downstream<br />station ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | 1 [[Lake Victoria]] outlet | Source (74) || 264,259 || 353 || 279 || 57 |- ! scope="row" | 2 Murchison Falls | Source (15) || 85,513 || 109 || 94 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |3 Mongalla | Neutral (1) || 131,691 || 159 || 158 || 5 |- ! scope="row" | 4 Malakal | Sink (−159) || 925,160|| 798 || 957 || 150 |- ! scope="row" |5 Khartoum |Sink (−40) || 257,130 || 134 || 174 || 14 |- ! scope="row" | 6 Dam{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}} | Source (105) || 188,296|| 246 || 142 || 70 |- ! scope="row" |7 Khartoum | Neutral (10) || 118,651|| 96 || 72 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |8 Khashm el Girba | Source (30) || 100,318|| 95 || 66 || 10 |- ! scope="row" | 9 Mouth of [[Atbarah River]] | Neutral (−3) || 104,051 || 22 || 25 || 1 |- ! scope="row" | 11 Aswan Dam{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}} | Sink (−10) || 188,011||2 || 13 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |12 Cairo/Delta | Sink (−10) || 145,293||3 || 12 || 0 |} ==Economy == ===Hydropower=== [[File:Nile River Hydropower Stations.svg|thumb|Sam hydropower stations on de Nile. "GERD" be de Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is shown as a blue line. Along the Nile, locations of about ten hydropower stations are indicated.]] {| class= "wikitable defaultright col2center col5center sortable" |+ Major hydropower stations insyd de Nile Basin ! scope="col" | Hydropower<br>station ! scope="col" | Nearby<br>landmark ! scope="col" | Year<br>dem plete ! scope="col" | Power<br>(MW, insyd 2025) ! scope="col" | Tributary |- ! scope="row" | Aswan Low Dam | Aswan, Egypt ||1902, 1912, 1933, 1985|| 550{{sfn|"Aswan Low Dam", ''Egypt MOEE'' }} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Aswan High Dam | Aswan, Egypt || 1970 || 2,100{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=149}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Merowe Dam | Merowe, Sudan|| 2009 || 1,250{{sfn|"Merowe Dam - Sudan", '' Abu Dhabi Fund for Development''}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Upper Atbara and Setit | Showak, Sudan|| 2017 || 320{{sfn|"Upper Atbara Dam", ''OPEC Fund for International Development''}} || [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] den Tekezé |- ! scope="row" | Roseires Dam | Er Roseires, Sudan || 1966, 2013 || 280{{sfn|"Roseires Dam", ''IHA''}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tana Beles | Lake Tana, Ethiopia || 2010 || 460{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Beles River, Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tekezé Dam | Tekezé River, Ethiopia || 2009 || 300{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Tekezé, [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] |- ! scope="row" | Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam | Bameza, Ethiopia|| 2020 || 5,150{{sfn|Endeshaw|2025}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Fincha | Fincha'a, Ethiopia || 1973|| 134{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Blue Nile (Chomen Lake) |- ! scope="row" | Karuma | Karuma Falls, Uganda || 2024 || 600{{sfn|"Karuma", ''Uganda Radio Network''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Isimba | Kamuli District, Uganda|| 2019 || 183{{sfn|"Isimba Power Station", ''UEGCL''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Bujagali | Bujagali Falls, Uganda|| 2012|| 250{{sfn|Griffin|2018}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Kiira | Kimaka, Uganda|| 2003 || 200{{sfn|Angurini|2021}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Nalubaale | Jinja, Uganda || 1954|| 180{{Sfn|Tumwesigye|2011|p=10}} || Victoria Nile |} == References == m7b2w1vlmskyml7r7j7zzu9sqhx44hg 99616 99615 2026-06-02T00:11:18Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 99616 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Nile''' be a major north-flowing river insyd northeast [[Africa]] wich dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea. At 7,088 kilometers (4,404 mi) long, e be de longest river insyd de world, although de volume of water e dey carry be much smaller dan oda major rivers such as de Amazon anaa de Congo. De Nile play a central role insyd de environmental, economic, den cultural history of Africa for millennia. De Nile get two major tributaries: de [[White Nile]] den de [[Blue Nile]]. De White Nile be longer wey be considered to be de headwaters, yet de Blue Nile dey contribute over twice de volume of de White Nile. De White Nile dey begin near Lake Victoria den dey flow thru [[Uganda]] den [[South Sudan]]; while de Blue Nile dey begin near Lake Tana insyd [[Ethiopia]] den dey flow into [[Sudan]] from de southeast. De two rivers dey meet at de Sudanese capital of Khartoum. From der, de Nile dey flow north thru de Nubian Desert to Egypt ein capital, Cairo, den finally dey empty into de Mediterranean Sea near Alexandria, wer e form a large river delta. Geologically, de Nile be a young river wey e follow ein present course for about 15,000 years. Ein drainage basin dey extend across eleven countries. Chaw of de water insyd de Nile dey cam from rainfall insyd de upstream countries [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], den [[Uganda]]. Downstream countries – [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], den [[South Sudan]] – be primarily desert, den withdraw river water for irrigation. Oda countries wey lie wholly anaa partly insyd de Nile Basin be [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Eritrea]], den [[Rwanda]]. De Nile be de foundation of de Ancient Egyptian civilization, wich rely on de river for nearly every aspect of life. De annual flooding of de river deposit nutrient-rich silt along de riverbanks. Dis soil support crops wey enable a sophisticated society to thrive insyd an otherwise inhospitable desert. De Nile facilitate trade, communication, transportation, den governance. South (upstream) of de second Nile cataract lay Nubia, de historical home of de ancient Kerma culture den de Kushite Empire. Na chaw Europeans be fascinated by de Nile, den dema explorations around Lake Victoria insyd de late 19th century locate de source of de river. Among de cultures wey live along de Nile insyd de modern era be de Nilotic peoples, semi-nomadic cattle herders wey practice nomadic pastoralism, wey dey move dema cattle seasonally in response to de Nile ein floods. Insyd de modern era, de Nile dey play a critical role insyd de economies of Egypt den Sudan, wich dey rely on am to irrigate extensive croplands. Since de late 20th century, na dem build over a dozen dams insyd de Nile Basin to provide for irrigation den to generate electricity. De dams alter de river ein annual flood cycle wey e restrict de transport of silt downstream, wey dey cause de Nile Delta to shrink. Sam dams – such as de Aswan High Dam den Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam – be de source of international political disputes about water scarcity, safety, food security, den forced displacement of peoples. == Names den etymology == De English word "Nile" be derived from de Latin Nilus den de Ancient Greek Νεῖλος (Neilos), wich possibly originate from de Semitic term ''naḥal'', wey dey mean 'river'.{{sfn|Hurst|2025}} Several tributaries (smaller rivers wey merge into de Nile) den segments of de river incorporate "Nile" insyd dema names, wey dey include: * Albert Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile wey dey flow north from Lake Albert to Nimule * Black Nile{{snd}}An alternate name give de [[Atbarah River]] * [[Blue Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Kyoga Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|pp=338,345}} * Main Nile{{snd}}Segment of de Nile downstream from de confluence of Blue Nile den White Nile{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} * Mountain Nile{{snd}}Segment of de White Nile from de mountains of Uganda to de plains of South Sudan{{sfn|Talling|2009|p=390}}<!-- {{efn|The Mountain Nile is also called ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' or ''Baḥr el-Jebel'' in Arabic. }} --> * Victoria Nile{{snd}}Segment of White Nile from [[Lake Victoria]] to Lake Kyoga{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=5}} * [[White Nile]]{{snd}}One of de two major tributaries of de Nile * Yellow Nile{{snd}}De Wadi Howar, remnant of an ancient tributary wey dry up several thousand years ago{{sfn|Dumont|2009|p=4}} ==Hydrology== <!-- {{Image frame |align=right |caption = The flow of the Nile varies widely throughout the year.<br>Rates (m{{super|3}}/sec) measured at [[Dongola]] on the main Nile.<br>Data collected before construction of [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]].{{sfn|"Nile Basin Dongola", ''Global Runoff Data Center''}} |content= {{ #invoke:Chart | bar-chart | group 1 = 1285.7 : 1006.0 : 831.3 : 881.7 : 828.7: 845.2 : 1930.3 : 6984.0 : 7866.5 : 4895.2 : 2510.8 : 1596.9 | colors = lightblue | group names = Flow | x legends = J : F: M:A:M:J:J:A:S:O:N:D }} }} --> === Sediment transport === * Gilgel Abay, Ethiopia : 7.6 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 0.7% of bedload * El Deim (at de border of Ethiopia den Sudan): 140 million tonnes{{sfn|Sutcliffe|2009|p=359}} * Aswan, Egypt: 0.14 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 28% of bedload * Beni Sweif, Egypt: 0.5 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 20% of bedload * Qena, Egypt: 0.27 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 27% of bedload * Sohag, Egypt: 1.5 million tonnes of suspended, den an additional 13% of bedload ===Water sources den sinks=== ====Sources and sinks: countries==== De following table dey summarize water balance measurements give countries within de Nile Basin. Portions of countries outsyd de Nile Basin be excluded from de values. {| class="wikitable" |+ Key for "Source/Sink" columns |- | Source || De country be a significant water source |- | Sink || De country be a significant water sink |- | Neutral || De country no be a significant source anaa sink |} <!-- The data includes the following: * Per-basin data: land surface area, [[precipitation]], [[evapotranspiration]], [[surface runoff]] * Per-station data: [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]] --> {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Country water balance (annual){{sfn|Senay|2014|p=8640|loc=Table 5}} ! scope="col" | Country ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | [[Burundi]] | Neutral (2) || 13,240|| 14 || 13 || 3 |- ! scope="row" |[[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]] | Neutral (0) || 19,919|| 23 || 23 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Egypt]] | Sink (−39) || 235,108 || 4 || 44 || 0 |- ! scope="row" | [[Eritrea]] | Neutral (2) || 24,427 || 14 || 12 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |[[Ethiopia]] | Source (164) || 363,775 || 459 || 295 || 138 |- ! scope="row" |[[Kenya]] | Source (27) || 49,513 || 76 || 49 || 23 |- ! scope="row" | [[Rwanda]] | Neutral (1) || 20,676 || 21 || 20 || 4 |- ! scope="row" |[[South Sudan]] | Sink (−146) || 617,256 || 612 || 757 ||92 |- ! scope="row" |[[Sudan]] | Sink (−81) || 1,226,660 || 364 || 445 ||23 |- ! scope="row" |[[Tanzania]] | Source (38) || 120,506 || 160 || 122 || 18 |- ! scope="row" | [[Uganda]] | Source (25) || 236,763 || 301 || 276 ||22 |- ! scope="row" | Total | || 2,927,843 || 2,048 || 2,056 || 324 |} ====Sources den sinks: geographic basins==== [[File:Nile River discharge flow gauge locations.svg|thumb|De water balance tables of dis article dey contain water flow information dem measure at de twelve stations dem show insyd dis map.<ref name=HydroData/>|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile River is drawn, and there are a dozen landmarks shown on the map, at various points of the river]] {| class= "wikitable mw-collapsible mw-uncollapsed nowrap defaultright col1left sortable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ Geographic basin water balance (annual)<ref name=HydroData>{{harvnb|Senay|2014|loc=Tables 3,4,5 and 6; Sec 3.5.5 (Source/Sink)}}.</ref> ! scope="col" | Basin's<br />downstream<br />station ! scope="col" | Source/Sink<br />(water bal km{{sup|3}}) ! scope="col" | Basin<br />Area km{{sup|2}} ! scope="col" | Precip km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Evap km{{sup|3}} ! scope="col" | Runoff km{{sup|3}} |- ! scope="row" | 1 [[Lake Victoria]] outlet | Source (74) || 264,259 || 353 || 279 || 57 |- ! scope="row" | 2 Murchison Falls | Source (15) || 85,513 || 109 || 94 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |3 Mongalla | Neutral (1) || 131,691 || 159 || 158 || 5 |- ! scope="row" | 4 Malakal | Sink (−159) || 925,160|| 798 || 957 || 150 |- ! scope="row" |5 Khartoum |Sink (−40) || 257,130 || 134 || 174 || 14 |- ! scope="row" | 6 Dam{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}} | Source (105) || 188,296|| 246 || 142 || 70 |- ! scope="row" |7 Khartoum | Neutral (10) || 118,651|| 96 || 72 || 9 |- ! scope="row" |8 Khashm el Girba | Source (30) || 100,318|| 95 || 66 || 10 |- ! scope="row" | 9 Mouth of [[Atbarah River]] | Neutral (−3) || 104,051 || 22 || 25 || 1 |- ! scope="row" | 11 Aswan Dam{{sfn|Senay|2014|loc=Figure 1, Table 2}} | Sink (−10) || 188,011||2 || 13 || 0 |- ! scope="row" |12 Cairo/Delta | Sink (−10) || 145,293||3 || 12 || 0 |} ==Economy == ===Hydropower=== [[File:Nile River Hydropower Stations.svg|thumb|Sam hydropower stations on de Nile. "GERD" be de Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.|alt=A map of northeast Africa. The Nile is shown as a blue line. Along the Nile, locations of about ten hydropower stations are indicated.]] {| class= "wikitable defaultright col2center col5center sortable" |+ Major hydropower stations insyd de Nile Basin ! scope="col" | Hydropower<br>station ! scope="col" | Nearby<br>landmark ! scope="col" | Year<br>dem plete ! scope="col" | Power<br>(MW, insyd 2025) ! scope="col" | Tributary |- ! scope="row" | Aswan Low Dam | Aswan, Egypt ||1902, 1912, 1933, 1985|| 550{{sfn|"Aswan Low Dam", ''Egypt MOEE'' }} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Aswan High Dam | Aswan, Egypt || 1970 || 2,100{{sfn|El-Shabrawy|2009|p=149}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Merowe Dam | Merowe, Sudan|| 2009 || 1,250{{sfn|"Merowe Dam - Sudan", '' Abu Dhabi Fund for Development''}} || Main Nile |- ! scope="row" | Upper Atbara and Setit | Showak, Sudan|| 2017 || 320{{sfn|"Upper Atbara Dam", ''OPEC Fund for International Development''}} || [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] den Tekezé |- ! scope="row" | Roseires Dam | Er Roseires, Sudan || 1966, 2013 || 280{{sfn|"Roseires Dam", ''IHA''}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tana Beles | Lake Tana, Ethiopia || 2010 || 460{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Beles River, Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Tekezé Dam | Tekezé River, Ethiopia || 2009 || 300{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Tekezé, [[Atbarah River|Atbarah]] |- ! scope="row" | Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam | Bameza, Ethiopia|| 2020 || 5,150{{sfn|Endeshaw|2025}} || Blue Nile |- ! scope="row" | Fincha | Fincha'a, Ethiopia || 1973|| 134{{sfn|Hailu|2022 |loc=Table 4}} || Blue Nile (Chomen Lake) |- ! scope="row" | Karuma | Karuma Falls, Uganda || 2024 || 600{{sfn|"Karuma", ''Uganda Radio Network''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Isimba | Kamuli District, Uganda|| 2019 || 183{{sfn|"Isimba Power Station", ''UEGCL''}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Bujagali | Bujagali Falls, Uganda|| 2012|| 250{{sfn|Griffin|2018}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Kiira | Kimaka, Uganda|| 2003 || 200{{sfn|Angurini|2021}} || Victoria Nile |- ! scope="row" | Nalubaale | Jinja, Uganda || 1954|| 180{{Sfn|Tumwesigye|2011|p=10}} || Victoria Nile |} == References == <references /> == External links == {{Subject bar|auto=yes|wikt=yes|}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Nile| ]] [[Category:Ancient Egyptian religion]] [[Category:Geography of ancient Egypt]] [[Category:Hebrew Bible rivers]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:National parks of Egypt]] [[Category:Nile basin|*]] [[Category:Rivers insyd art]] [[Category:Rivers of Burundi]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Rivers of Egypt]] [[Category:Rivers of Eritrea]] [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] [[Category:Rivers of Rwanda]] [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Sudan]] [[Category:Rivers of Tanzania]] [[Category:Rivers of Uganda]] [[Category:Water transport insyd Egypt]] 6tvx5ktgssgjzbjuij5ja7x8313qgdt 14 27152 99562 2026-06-01T18:41:14Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99562 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27153 99564 2026-06-01T18:41:39Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99564 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27154 99586 2026-06-01T19:23:51Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1357253770|Lake Victoria]]" 99586 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Victoria''' be one of de African Great Lakes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lake Victoria {{!}} AGLI |url=https://www.africangreatlakesinform.org/page/lake-victoria |access-date=2025-07-05 |website=www.africangreatlakesinform.org}}</ref> Plus a surface area of approximately 59,947 km2 (23,146 sq mi),<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stuart |first=Hamilton |date=2016-10-05 |title=Shoreline, Lake Victoria, vector polygon, ~2015 |journal=Harvard Dataverse |type=Data Set |language=en |doi=10.7910/dvn/pwfw26}}</ref><ref name="auto3">{{Cite book |last=Stuart |first=Hamilton |title=Lake Victoria Statistics from this Dataverse |date=2018-11-13 |publisher=Harvard Dataverse |language=en |chapter=Earth and Environmental Sciences |type=Data Set |doi=10.7910/dvn/fvjj4a}}</ref> Lake Victoria be Africa ein largest lake by area, de world ein largest tropical lake,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Saundry |first=Peter |title=Lake Victoria |url=http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/154134/}}</ref> den de world ein second-largest fresh water lake by surface area after Lake Superior insyd [[North America]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lake Victoria |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Victoria |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> In terms of volume, Lake Victoria be de world ein ninth-largest continental lake, wey dey contain about 2,424 km3 (1.965×109 acre⋅ft) of water.<ref name="auto3" /><ref name="auto4">{{Cite journal |last=Stuart |first=Hamilton |last2=Taabu |first2=Anthony Munyaho |last3=Noah |first3=Krach |last4=Sarah |first4=Glaser |date=2018-05-17 |title=Bathymetry TIFF, Lake Victoria Bathymetry, raster, 2017, V7 |journal=Harvard Dataverse |type=Data Set |language=en |doi=10.7910/dvn/soeknr}}</ref> Lake Victoria dey occupy a shallow depression insyd Africa. De lake get an average depth of 40 m (130 ft) den a maximum depth of 80–81 m (262–266 ft).<ref name="auto3" /><ref name="auto4" /><ref name="UNEP992">United Nations, ''Development and Harmonisation of Environmental Laws Volume 1: Report on the Legal and Institutional Issues in the Lake Victoria Basin'', United Nations, 1999, page 17</ref> Ein catchment area dey cover 169,858 km2 (65,583 sq mi).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stuart |first=Hamilton |date=2017-11-12 |title=Basin, Lake Victoria Watershed (inside), vector polygon, ~2015 |journal=Harvard Dataverse |type=Data Set |language=en |doi=10.7910/dvn/z5rmyd}}</ref> De lake get a shoreline of 7,142 km (4,438 mi) wen digitized at de 1:25,000 level,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Stuart |title=Shoreline, Lake Victoria, vector line – 2015 – LakeVicFish Dataverse |date=2016-10-11 |publisher=Harvard Dataverse |chapter=Earth and Environmental Sciences |type=Data Set |doi=10.7910/dvn/5y5ivf}}</ref> wey islands dey constitute 3.7% of dis length.<ref name="Hickling61">{{Cite book |last=Hickling, C. F. |url=https://archive.org/details/tropicalinlandfi0000hick |title=Tropical Inland Fisheries |publisher=[[Longmans]] |year=1961 |location=London |url-access=registration}}</ref>  De lake ein area be divided among three countries: [[Tanzania]] dey occupy 49% (33,700 km2 (13,000 sq mi)), [[Uganda]] 45% (31,000 km2 (12,000 sq mi)), den [[Kenya]] 6% (4,100 km2 (1,600 sq mi)).<ref>J. Prado, R.J. Beare, J. Siwo Mbuga & L.E. Oluka, 1991.</ref> De lake be home to chaw species of fish wich dey live nowhere else, especially cichlids. Invasive fish, such as de Nile perch, drive chaw endemic species to extinction. == Names == Though e get multiple local language names (Swahili: ''Ukerewe''; Dholuo: ''Nam Lolwe''; Luganda: ''<nowiki/>'Nnalubaale''; Kinyarwanda: ''Nyanza''),<ref name="WDL1">{{Cite web |year=1899 |title=The Victoria. The Land, the Races and their Customs, with Specimens of Some of the Dialects |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2557 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529091640/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/2557/ |archive-date=29 May 2016 |access-date=18 February 2013 |publisher=[[World Digital Library]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lake Ukerewe |url=https://ntz.info/gen/n01545.html |access-date=17 October 2020 |website=nTZ: An Information Resource for Northern Tanzania |publisher=David Marsh}}</ref> na dem rename de lake after Queen Victoria by de explorer John Hanning Speke, de first Briton to document am insyd 1858, while on an expedition plys Richard Francis Burton.<ref>{{cite news|title=How Feud Wrecked the Reputation of Explorer Who Discovered Nile's Source|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/sep/11/burton-speke-african-exploration-nile|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=29 December 2013|first=Dalya|last=Alberge|date=11 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |author-link=Alan Moorehead |url=https://archive.org/details/whitenile0000moor |title=The White Nile |publisher=Harper & Row |year=1960 |isbn=978-0-06-095639-4 |location=New York |pages=27, 36, 39, 43, 46, 50, 52, 54, 62, 66, 71, 98 |chapter=Part One: The Exploration, Chapters 1-5 |lccn=61-6197 |url-access=registration}}</ref> == Native wildlife == === Mammals === Chaw mammal species dey live insyd de region of Lake Victoria, den sam of dese be closely associated plus de lake einself den de nearby wetlands. Among dese be de hippopotamus, African clawless otter, spotted-necked otter, marsh mongoose, sitatunga, bohor reedbuck, defassa waterbuck, cane rats, den giant otter shrew.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kingdon, J. |author-link=Jonathan Kingdon |title=The Kingdon Guide to African Mammals |publisher=Academic Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-12-408355-2 |location=London, England}}</ref> === Reptiles === Lake Victoria den ein wetlands get a large population of Nile crocodiles, as well as African helmeted turtles, variable mud turtles, den Williams' mud turtle.<ref name="Spawls2002">{{Cite book |last=Spawls, Stephen; Howell, Kim; Drewes, Robert C. & Ashe, James |title=Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa: All the Reptiles of Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi |date=2002 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-12-656470-9 |edition=1st |location=Princeton, NJ}}</ref> De Williams' mud turtle be restricted to Lake Victoria den oda lakes, rivers, den swamps insyd de upper Nile basin.<ref name="Spawls2002" />  === Cichlid fish === [[File:Pundamilia_(Haplochromis)_nyererei_male.jpg|thumb|Unlike chaw oda Lake Victoria cichlids, ''Haplochromis nyererei'' dey remain common.<ref>{{Cite iucn|last1=Witte|first1=F.|last2=de Zeeuw|first2=M.P.|last3=Brooks|first3=E.|title=''Haplochromis nyererei''|volume=2016|article-number=e.T60668A97125826|date=2016|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T60668A97125826.en|access-date=14 January 2018}}</ref> Dem compare to chaw oda cichlids, ein eyes be particularly sensitive to light, especially red, wich be less affected by de decrease insyd water clarity wey eutrophication than short wavelength colors cause<ref name="Witte2000">{{Cite journal |last=Witte |last2=Msuku |last3=Wanink |last4=Seehausen |last5=Katunzi |last6=Goudswaard |last7=Goldschmidt |year=2000 |title=Recovery of cichlid species in Lake Victoria: an examination of factors leading to differential extinction |url=https://boris.unibe.ch/71524/ |journal=Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=233–41 |bibcode=2000RFBF...10..233W |doi=10.1023/a:1016677515930 |s2cid=39566440}}</ref>]] [[File:The_use_of_boats_for_transport_on_lake_Victoria_uganda.jpg|alt=View at Lake Victoria (Uganda).|thumb|View at Lake Victoria insyd Uganda]] [[File:Nile_monitor_lizard,_Lake_Victoria_(1)_(28017355603).jpg|thumb|Nile monitor lizard, Lake Victoria.]] === Oda fish === De non-cichlid native fish dey include African tetras (''Brycinus''), cyprinids (''Enteromius'', ''Garra'', ''Labeo'', ''Labeobarbus'', ''Rastrineobola'' den ''Xenobarbus''), airbreathing catfish (''Clariallabes'', ''Clarias'' den ''Xenoclarias''), bagrid catfish (''Bagrus''), loach catfish (''Amphilius'' den ''Zaireichthys''), silver butter catfish (''Schilbe intermedius''), ''Synodontis'' squeaker catfish, ''Nothobranchius'' killifish, poeciliids (''Aplocheilichthys'' den ''Micropanchax''), de spiny eel ''Mastacembelus frenatus'', elephantfish (''Gnathonemus'', ''Hippopotamyrus'', ''Marcusenius'', ''Mormyrus'', ''Petrocephalus'', den ''Pollimyrus''), de climbing gourami ''Ctenopoma muriei'' den marbled lungfish (''Protopterus aethiopicus'').<ref name="FishBaseList2">FishBase: [http://www.fishbase.org/TrophicEco/FishEcoList.php?ve_code=3 Fish Species in Victoria.]</ref> [[File:Victoria_Nyanza,_voyages_de_MM._J._Jackson_&_Gedge_et_Père_Schynse_-_DPLA_-_56a4977fa3409e9beb528ee7ca96e923.jpg|alt=Lake Victoria|left|thumb|Map of Lake Victoria]] At a genus level, chaw of dese be widespread insyd Africa, buh de very rare ''Xenobarbus'' den ''Xenoclarias'' be endemic to de lake, den de common ''Rastrineobola'' be near-endemic.<ref name="FishBaseList3">FishBase: [http://www.fishbase.org/TrophicEco/FishEcoList.php?ve_code=3 Fish Species in Victoria.]</ref> A restocking effort give de native tilapia species ''Oreochromis esculentus'' insyd Lake Victoria involve Conservation International Kenya, Victory Farms, den de Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute.<ref name="StandardFarmKenyaTilapia">{{Cite web |date=8 September 2023 |title=Efforts set in place to save Tilapia species |url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/farmkenya/article/2001481026/efforts-set-in-place-to-save-tilapia-species |website=FarmKenya Initiative (The Standard)}}</ref><ref name="KenyaNewsTilapia2023">{{Cite web |date=6 September 2023 |title=Restocking of endangered fish species starts in L.Victoria |url=https://www.kenyanews.go.ke/restocking-of-endangered-fish-species-starts-in-l-victoria/ |website=Kenya News Agency}}</ref><ref name="CIKenyaPlaces">{{Cite web |title=Kenya |url=https://www.conservation.org/places/kenya |website=Conservation International}}</ref> === Crustaceans === Four species of freshwater crabs be known from Lake Victoria: ''Potamonautes niloticus'' be widespread insyd de lake den ''P. emini'' be recorded from de vicinity of Bukoba insyd Tanzania, buh both sanso be found elsewhere insyd Africa.<ref>Cumberlidge, N. (2009).</ref><ref>{{Cite iucn|author=Cumberlidge, N.|title=''Potamonautes emini''|volume=2016|article-number=e.T44523A84352263|date=2016|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T44523A84352263.en|access-date=14 January 2018}}</ref> [[File:Lake_Victoria_IMG_20200202_145633.jpg|alt=Lake Victoria.|thumb|Lake Victoria from a wider angle.]] De shrimp/prawn per be ''Caridina nilotica'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goudswaard |first=K. |last2=Witte |first2=F. |last3=Wanink |first3=J.H. |year=2006 |title=The shrimp Caridina nilotica in Lake Victoria (East Africa), before and after the Nile perch increase |journal=Hydrobiologia |volume=563 |issue=1 |pages=31–44 |bibcode=2006HyBio.563...31G |doi=10.1007/s10750-005-1385-9 |s2cid=40935454}}</ref> wich be common den widespread insyd Lake Victoria.<ref name="Lowe2009">{{Cite journal |last=Lowe-McConnell |first=R |year=2009 |title=Fisheries and cichlid evolution in the African Great Lakes: progress and problems |journal=Freshwater Reviews |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=131–51 |doi=10.1608/frj-2.2.2 |s2cid=54011001}}</ref> === Molluscs === Lake Victoria be home to 28 species of freshwater snails (e.g., ''Bellamya'', ''Biomphalaria'', ''Bulinus'', ''Cleopatra'', ''Gabbiella'', den ''Melanoides''), wey dey include 12 endemic species/subspecies.<ref name="Darwall2011">{{Cite book |last=Seddon, M. |title=The Diversity of Life in African Freshwaters: Under Water, Under Threat. An Analysis of the Status and Distribution of Freshwater Species Throughout Mainland Africa |last2=Appleton, C. |last3=Van Damme, D. |last4=Graf, D. |year=2011 |isbn=978-2-8317-1345-8 |editor-last=Darwall, W. |pages=92–119 |chapter=Freshwater Molluscs of Africa: Diversity, Distribution, and Conservation |editor-last2=Smith, K. |editor-last3=Allen, D. |editor-last4=Holland, R. |editor-last5=Harrison, I. |editor-last6=Brooks, E.}}</ref><ref>Brown, D. (1994).</ref> Der be 17 species of bivalves (''Corbicula'', ''Coelatura'', ''Sphaerium'', den ''Byssanodonta''), wey dey include 6 endemic species den subspecies.<ref name="Darwall2011" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mwambungu |first=J.A. |year=2004 |title=The diversity of benthic molluscs of Lake Victoria and Lake Burigi |journal=Tanzania Journal of Science |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=21–32 |doi=10.4314/tjs.v30i1.18384 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Spiders === ''Evarcha culicivora'' be a species of jumping spider (family Salticidae) dem find around Lake Victoria per insyd Kenya den Uganda. E dey feed primarily on female mosquitos.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nelson |first=Ximena J. |last2=Jackson |first2=Robert R. |last3=Sune |first3=Godfrey |date=2005 |title=Use of Anopheles-Specific Prey-Capture Behavior by the Small Juveniles of Evarcha culicivora, a Mosquito-Eating Jumping Spider |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/228863 |journal=The Journal of Arachnology |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=541–548 |doi=10.1636/05-3.1 |issn=0161-8202 |jstor=4129852 |s2cid=55244513}}</ref> == History den exploration == [[File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-3-183.jpg|thumb|Bismarck Rock]] De first recorded information about Lake Victoria dey cam from Arab traders wey dey ply de inland routes in search of gold, ivory, oda precious commodities, den [[Slavery|slaves]]. [[File:Africa_Lake_Victoria_10_006.jpg|left|thumb|De lake as dem see from de shores of de Speke Resort insyd Kampala, Uganda]] == Water use == Chaw towns den cities be reliant on Lake Victoria for dema water supplies, for farming den oda uses.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lake Victoria {{!}} Size, Map, Countries, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Victoria |access-date=2020-08-24 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> === Nalubaale Dam === [[File:From_top_of_Nalubaale_Power_Station.jpg|right|thumb|De Nalubaale Hydroelectric Power Station insyd Njeru, Uganda.]] == References == [[Category:Pages with unreviewed translations]] rmyrwdnh3vscdxiwnvp7ujk7gqqt5xl 0 27155 99592 2026-06-01T20:55:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99592 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. n2y7s2q876dj8hfnone468lhcpw1wd4 99593 99592 2026-06-01T20:57:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99593 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. d70vjnfzemhqzjg4u5avvl7ecidwxz3 99594 99593 2026-06-01T20:57:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99594 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. mclifetpla5u2qewt9mh5brs4uphv2i 99595 99594 2026-06-01T20:58:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99595 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. pgul64d6q25bcu70hx2a727wc1kbqv5 99596 99595 2026-06-01T20:58:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99596 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. ae3lb3u2bwgefze7sq1aoobxpo4qn0p 99597 99596 2026-06-01T20:59:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99597 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. cfrzry2k2zntoo56htkqbfmu6b09wm2 99598 99597 2026-06-01T20:59:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99598 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd. 22dewv686uyanjtvkfh13zibc7lt52o 99599 99598 2026-06-01T21:00:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99599 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> iifqser6ypnf61ltdh28kex4t0dck2c 99600 99599 2026-06-01T21:07:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99600 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == References == lisfgvr9f06evqlsq2q3qhpxv72kyw8 99601 99600 2026-06-01T21:08:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99601 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == References == e23xms52ft0o25np73bz47ndc4seant 99629 99601 2026-06-02T09:24:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99629 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese), at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd. == References == l82xxuexwh1u7mu8rnqbb2vc9zfyj9f 99630 99629 2026-06-02T09:24:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99630 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese), at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd. During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. == References == i41njq1o1wpp7200r8v4wbvek09yv1k 99631 99630 2026-06-02T09:25:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99631 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese), at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd. During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == References == qmtz4a3iije7cbge8l2ahdzetbcz9zp 99632 99631 2026-06-02T09:25:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99632 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd. During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == References == qyc6ikgqwcd013jebztf2x0aqbn0h7e 99633 99632 2026-06-02T09:26:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99633 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == References == 4f2qidprbun4j2yi71n3kqsz6unu5mi 99634 99633 2026-06-02T09:27:11Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99634 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}. == References == gyivq7tp6h3tjdyh9giqh36hcxqotdf 99635 99634 2026-06-02T09:27:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99635 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> == References == 7kx7tl3g0zl9dm7evpzu0xxypbpq9bx 99636 99635 2026-06-02T09:29:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99636 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == References == lcc7phd5phqhd3svfq03nkq5uyk7kh8 99637 99636 2026-06-02T09:32:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99637 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == ''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]'' == References == ibsys3ym9tqjx10xd5ptgoxnh9suqtc 99638 99637 2026-06-02T09:37:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99638 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge. == References == jpxxj3ra2rlbwo7gr7k1g5q2jgjhe83 99639 99638 2026-06-02T09:38:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99639 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge. Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts. == References == m8qsagaecod717hfgjmfjsfuei82j2c 99640 99639 2026-06-02T09:39:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99640 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge. Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts. Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022. == References == 7s7af94tmk2lvokm1wkls1igypduun1 99641 99640 2026-06-02T09:39:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99641 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge. Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts. Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022. == References == nypnngctf4m9tn23fg45ic8ee1xpgu8 99642 99641 2026-06-02T09:40:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99642 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Siderius |first=Christian |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46818/2021_Book_ClimateRiskInAfrica.pdf?sequence=1#page=114 |title=Climate Risk in Africa: Adaptation and Resilience |publisher=Palgrave Macmillian |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-61159-0 |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Declan |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |pages=93–113 |chapter=Chapter 6: High Stakes Decisions Under Uncertainty: Dams, Development and Climate Change in the Rufiji River Basin |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61160-6_6 |display-authors=etal |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Katharine |s2cid=234340454}}</ref> new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge. Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts. Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022. == References == dmfxrzn24vlrn9ggle2419b8v9pgtgi 99643 99642 2026-06-02T09:41:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99643 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Siderius |first=Christian |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46818/2021_Book_ClimateRiskInAfrica.pdf?sequence=1#page=114 |title=Climate Risk in Africa: Adaptation and Resilience |publisher=Palgrave Macmillian |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-61159-0 |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Declan |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |pages=93–113 |chapter=Chapter 6: High Stakes Decisions Under Uncertainty: Dams, Development and Climate Change in the Rufiji River Basin |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61160-6_6 |display-authors=etal |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Katharine |s2cid=234340454}}</ref> new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tanzania to Construct Hydropower Plant on National Reserve|newspaper=[[Voice of America]]|date=July 26, 2019|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_tanzania-construct-hydropower-plant-national-reserve/6172693.html}}</ref> Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts. Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022. == References == drfnpmsct6m66epxly4pimyaszvlmjj 99644 99643 2026-06-02T09:41:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99644 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Siderius |first=Christian |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46818/2021_Book_ClimateRiskInAfrica.pdf?sequence=1#page=114 |title=Climate Risk in Africa: Adaptation and Resilience |publisher=Palgrave Macmillian |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-61159-0 |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Declan |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |pages=93–113 |chapter=Chapter 6: High Stakes Decisions Under Uncertainty: Dams, Development and Climate Change in the Rufiji River Basin |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61160-6_6 |display-authors=etal |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Katharine |s2cid=234340454}}</ref> new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tanzania to Construct Hydropower Plant on National Reserve|newspaper=[[Voice of America]]|date=July 26, 2019|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_tanzania-construct-hydropower-plant-national-reserve/6172693.html}}</ref> Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tairo|first=Apolinari|date=July 26, 2019|title=Tanzania launches Rufiji power plant|newspaper=[[The EastAfrican]]|url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Construction-of-Tanzania-hydro-plant-begins/2560-5211880-ig941w/index.html}}</ref> Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022. == References == g9c58asq2xlza37csidmh7ep4nn13dg 99645 99644 2026-06-02T09:42:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99645 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Siderius |first=Christian |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46818/2021_Book_ClimateRiskInAfrica.pdf?sequence=1#page=114 |title=Climate Risk in Africa: Adaptation and Resilience |publisher=Palgrave Macmillian |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-61159-0 |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Declan |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |pages=93–113 |chapter=Chapter 6: High Stakes Decisions Under Uncertainty: Dams, Development and Climate Change in the Rufiji River Basin |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61160-6_6 |display-authors=etal |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Katharine |s2cid=234340454}}</ref> new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tanzania to Construct Hydropower Plant on National Reserve|newspaper=[[Voice of America]]|date=July 26, 2019|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_tanzania-construct-hydropower-plant-national-reserve/6172693.html}}</ref> Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tairo|first=Apolinari|date=July 26, 2019|title=Tanzania launches Rufiji power plant|newspaper=[[The EastAfrican]]|url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Construction-of-Tanzania-hydro-plant-begins/2560-5211880-ig941w/index.html}}</ref> Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022.<ref name="Takouleu">{{Cite news|last=Takouleu|first=Jean Marie|date=24 July 2019|title=Stiegler's Gorge dam construction begins on July 26|publisher=Afrik 21|url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725050527/https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> == References == lojp48bzj000qrj75yjlugzoh6emb0r 99646 99645 2026-06-02T09:43:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99646 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Siderius |first=Christian |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46818/2021_Book_ClimateRiskInAfrica.pdf?sequence=1#page=114 |title=Climate Risk in Africa: Adaptation and Resilience |publisher=Palgrave Macmillian |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-61159-0 |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Declan |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |pages=93–113 |chapter=Chapter 6: High Stakes Decisions Under Uncertainty: Dams, Development and Climate Change in the Rufiji River Basin |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61160-6_6 |display-authors=etal |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Katharine |s2cid=234340454}}</ref> new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tanzania to Construct Hydropower Plant on National Reserve|newspaper=[[Voice of America]]|date=July 26, 2019|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_tanzania-construct-hydropower-plant-national-reserve/6172693.html}}</ref> Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tairo|first=Apolinari|date=July 26, 2019|title=Tanzania launches Rufiji power plant|newspaper=[[The EastAfrican]]|url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Construction-of-Tanzania-hydro-plant-begins/2560-5211880-ig941w/index.html}}</ref> Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022.<ref name="Takouleu">{{Cite news|last=Takouleu|first=Jean Marie|date=24 July 2019|title=Stiegler's Gorge dam construction begins on July 26|publisher=Afrik 21|url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725050527/https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|Sun wey dey poke thru de clouds along de river. File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|Rufiji River at [[:en:Selous_Game_Reserve|Selous Game Reserve]]. File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|Elephants along de river. File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|De river bank </gallery> == References == ay6xx1n3p71xwiggbangfvgvtyzr75p 99647 99646 2026-06-02T09:44:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99647 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Siderius |first=Christian |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46818/2021_Book_ClimateRiskInAfrica.pdf?sequence=1#page=114 |title=Climate Risk in Africa: Adaptation and Resilience |publisher=Palgrave Macmillian |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-61159-0 |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Declan |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |pages=93–113 |chapter=Chapter 6: High Stakes Decisions Under Uncertainty: Dams, Development and Climate Change in the Rufiji River Basin |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61160-6_6 |display-authors=etal |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Katharine |s2cid=234340454}}</ref> new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tanzania to Construct Hydropower Plant on National Reserve|newspaper=[[Voice of America]]|date=July 26, 2019|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_tanzania-construct-hydropower-plant-national-reserve/6172693.html}}</ref> Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tairo|first=Apolinari|date=July 26, 2019|title=Tanzania launches Rufiji power plant|newspaper=[[The EastAfrican]]|url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Construction-of-Tanzania-hydro-plant-begins/2560-5211880-ig941w/index.html}}</ref> Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022.<ref name="Takouleu">{{Cite news|last=Takouleu|first=Jean Marie|date=24 July 2019|title=Stiegler's Gorge dam construction begins on July 26|publisher=Afrik 21|url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725050527/https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|Sun wey dey poke thru de clouds along de river. File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|Rufiji River at [[:en:Selous_Game_Reserve|Selous Game Reserve]]. File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|Elephants along de river. File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|De river bank </gallery> == References == <references /> == Further reading == rt6p45gtdk5z47329v9450oj374do8v 99648 99647 2026-06-02T09:45:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99648 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Siderius |first=Christian |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46818/2021_Book_ClimateRiskInAfrica.pdf?sequence=1#page=114 |title=Climate Risk in Africa: Adaptation and Resilience |publisher=Palgrave Macmillian |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-61159-0 |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Declan |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |pages=93–113 |chapter=Chapter 6: High Stakes Decisions Under Uncertainty: Dams, Development and Climate Change in the Rufiji River Basin |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61160-6_6 |display-authors=etal |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Katharine |s2cid=234340454}}</ref> new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tanzania to Construct Hydropower Plant on National Reserve|newspaper=[[Voice of America]]|date=July 26, 2019|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_tanzania-construct-hydropower-plant-national-reserve/6172693.html}}</ref> Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tairo|first=Apolinari|date=July 26, 2019|title=Tanzania launches Rufiji power plant|newspaper=[[The EastAfrican]]|url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Construction-of-Tanzania-hydro-plant-begins/2560-5211880-ig941w/index.html}}</ref> Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022.<ref name="Takouleu">{{Cite news|last=Takouleu|first=Jean Marie|date=24 July 2019|title=Stiegler's Gorge dam construction begins on July 26|publisher=Afrik 21|url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725050527/https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|Sun wey dey poke thru de clouds along de river. File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|Rufiji River at [[:en:Selous_Game_Reserve|Selous Game Reserve]]. File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|Elephants along de river. File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|De river bank </gallery> == References == <references /> == Further reading == * [[:en:Felix_A._Chami|Chami, F. A.]] 1999. "The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland." ''Azania'' Vol. XXXIV 1999, pp.&#x20;1–10. 7vfmwpvlstskyzhfyjoovh4l08ndqz5 99649 99648 2026-06-02T09:45:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99649 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Siderius |first=Christian |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46818/2021_Book_ClimateRiskInAfrica.pdf?sequence=1#page=114 |title=Climate Risk in Africa: Adaptation and Resilience |publisher=Palgrave Macmillian |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-61159-0 |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Declan |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |pages=93–113 |chapter=Chapter 6: High Stakes Decisions Under Uncertainty: Dams, Development and Climate Change in the Rufiji River Basin |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61160-6_6 |display-authors=etal |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Katharine |s2cid=234340454}}</ref> new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tanzania to Construct Hydropower Plant on National Reserve|newspaper=[[Voice of America]]|date=July 26, 2019|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_tanzania-construct-hydropower-plant-national-reserve/6172693.html}}</ref> Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tairo|first=Apolinari|date=July 26, 2019|title=Tanzania launches Rufiji power plant|newspaper=[[The EastAfrican]]|url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Construction-of-Tanzania-hydro-plant-begins/2560-5211880-ig941w/index.html}}</ref> Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022.<ref name="Takouleu">{{Cite news|last=Takouleu|first=Jean Marie|date=24 July 2019|title=Stiegler's Gorge dam construction begins on July 26|publisher=Afrik 21|url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725050527/https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|Sun wey dey poke thru de clouds along de river. File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|Rufiji River at [[:en:Selous_Game_Reserve|Selous Game Reserve]]. File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|Elephants along de river. File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|De river bank </gallery> == References == <references /> == Further reading == * [[:en:Felix_A._Chami|Chami, F. A.]] 1999. "The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland." ''Azania'' Vol. XXXIV 1999, pp.&#x20;1–10. * Chami, Felix A. 2002. "The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp.&#x20;93–104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}. ehhhxu7al56yu666qw2mslvlz0sph7j 99650 99649 2026-06-02T09:45:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99650 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Siderius |first=Christian |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46818/2021_Book_ClimateRiskInAfrica.pdf?sequence=1#page=114 |title=Climate Risk in Africa: Adaptation and Resilience |publisher=Palgrave Macmillian |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-61159-0 |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Declan |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |pages=93–113 |chapter=Chapter 6: High Stakes Decisions Under Uncertainty: Dams, Development and Climate Change in the Rufiji River Basin |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61160-6_6 |display-authors=etal |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Katharine |s2cid=234340454}}</ref> new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tanzania to Construct Hydropower Plant on National Reserve|newspaper=[[Voice of America]]|date=July 26, 2019|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_tanzania-construct-hydropower-plant-national-reserve/6172693.html}}</ref> Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tairo|first=Apolinari|date=July 26, 2019|title=Tanzania launches Rufiji power plant|newspaper=[[The EastAfrican]]|url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Construction-of-Tanzania-hydro-plant-begins/2560-5211880-ig941w/index.html}}</ref> Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022.<ref name="Takouleu">{{Cite news|last=Takouleu|first=Jean Marie|date=24 July 2019|title=Stiegler's Gorge dam construction begins on July 26|publisher=Afrik 21|url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725050527/https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|Sun wey dey poke thru de clouds along de river. File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|Rufiji River at [[:en:Selous_Game_Reserve|Selous Game Reserve]]. File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|Elephants along de river. File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|De river bank </gallery> == References == <references /> == Further reading == * [[:en:Felix_A._Chami|Chami, F. A.]] 1999. "The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland." ''Azania'' Vol. XXXIV 1999, pp.&#x20;1–10. * Chami, Felix A. 2002. "The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp.&#x20;93–104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}. * Miller, J. Innes. 1969. Chapter 8: "The Cinnamon Route". In: ''The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire''. Oxford: University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-814264-1}} a26ca88yev0knqyenxanl9pv93s9q1y 99651 99650 2026-06-02T09:46:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99651 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Siderius |first=Christian |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46818/2021_Book_ClimateRiskInAfrica.pdf?sequence=1#page=114 |title=Climate Risk in Africa: Adaptation and Resilience |publisher=Palgrave Macmillian |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-61159-0 |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Declan |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |pages=93–113 |chapter=Chapter 6: High Stakes Decisions Under Uncertainty: Dams, Development and Climate Change in the Rufiji River Basin |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61160-6_6 |display-authors=etal |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Katharine |s2cid=234340454}}</ref> new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tanzania to Construct Hydropower Plant on National Reserve|newspaper=[[Voice of America]]|date=July 26, 2019|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_tanzania-construct-hydropower-plant-national-reserve/6172693.html}}</ref> Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tairo|first=Apolinari|date=July 26, 2019|title=Tanzania launches Rufiji power plant|newspaper=[[The EastAfrican]]|url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Construction-of-Tanzania-hydro-plant-begins/2560-5211880-ig941w/index.html}}</ref> Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022.<ref name="Takouleu">{{Cite news|last=Takouleu|first=Jean Marie|date=24 July 2019|title=Stiegler's Gorge dam construction begins on July 26|publisher=Afrik 21|url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725050527/https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|Sun wey dey poke thru de clouds along de river. File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|Rufiji River at [[:en:Selous_Game_Reserve|Selous Game Reserve]]. File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|Elephants along de river. File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|De river bank </gallery> == References == <references /> == Further reading == * [[:en:Felix_A._Chami|Chami, F. A.]] 1999. "The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland." ''Azania'' Vol. XXXIV 1999, pp.&#x20;1–10. * Chami, Felix A. 2002. "The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp.&#x20;93–104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}. * Miller, J. Innes. 1969. Chapter 8: "The Cinnamon Route". In: ''The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire''. Oxford: University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-814264-1}} * Ray, Himanshu Prabha, ed. 1999. ''Archaeology of Seafaring: The Indian Ocean in the Ancient Period''. Pragati Publications, Delhi. 8nuytmcsmwhcsrf5j7vy84r7qp36roo 99652 99651 2026-06-02T09:48:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99652 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de [[:en:Kilombero_River|Kilombero]] den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de [[:en:Indian_Ocean|Indian Ocean]], opposite [[:en:Mafia_Island|Mafia Island]], for [[:en:Pwani_Region|Pwani Region]] insyd. Ein principal tributary be de [[:en:Great_Ruaha_River|Great Ruaha River]]. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}. De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of [[:en:Dar_es_Salaam|Dar es Salaam]]. De [[:en:River_delta|river]] [[:en:River_delta|ein delta]] dey contain de largest [[:en:Mangrove_forest|mangrove forest]] for eastern Africa insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |title="Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa", ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}</ref> == History == A branch of ancient [[:en:Sea_route|sea routes]] lead down de East African coast wey dem bell "Azania" by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|Periplus of]] [[:en:Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea|de Erythraean Sea]] insyd (den, very probably, [[:en:Chinese_language|Chinese]]: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}</ref> at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as [[:en:Rhapta|Rhapta]], wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]] insyd.<ref>"The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.</ref> During de [[:en:World_War_I|First World War]], from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a [[:en:Battle_of_Rufiji_Delta|protracted naval operation]]. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de [[:en:Royal_Navy|Royal Navy]] to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser [[:en:SMS_Königsberg_(1905)|''Königsberg'']]. == Basin == De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Rufiji Basin catchment area !River !Area km² !Percentage of area !Percentage of run-off |- !Great Ruaha | align="right" |     83,970 | align="right" |47 | align="right" |15 |- !Kilombero | align="right" |39,990 | align="right" |23 | align="right" |62 |- !Luwegu | align="right" |26,300 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |18 |- !Rufiji (lower river) | align="right" |27,160 | align="right" |15 | align="right" |5 |- ! | align="right" | | align="right" | | align="right" | |- !'''Total''' | align="right" |      177,429 | align="right" |100 | align="right" |100 |} == Hydroelectric Project == <blockquote>''Main article: [[:en:Julius_Nyerere_Hydropower_Station|Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station]]''</blockquote>Tanzania presido [[:en:John_Magufuli|John Magufuli]] approve de construction of a controversial<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Siderius |first=Christian |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46818/2021_Book_ClimateRiskInAfrica.pdf?sequence=1#page=114 |title=Climate Risk in Africa: Adaptation and Resilience |publisher=Palgrave Macmillian |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-61159-0 |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Declan |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |pages=93–113 |chapter=Chapter 6: High Stakes Decisions Under Uncertainty: Dams, Development and Climate Change in the Rufiji River Basin |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61160-6_6 |display-authors=etal |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Katharine |s2cid=234340454}}</ref> new dam den [[:en:Power_station|power station]] for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Tanzania to Construct Hydropower Plant on National Reserve|newspaper=[[Voice of America]]|date=July 26, 2019|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_tanzania-construct-hydropower-plant-national-reserve/6172693.html}}</ref> Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tairo|first=Apolinari|date=July 26, 2019|title=Tanzania launches Rufiji power plant|newspaper=[[The EastAfrican]]|url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Construction-of-Tanzania-hydro-plant-begins/2560-5211880-ig941w/index.html}}</ref> Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022.<ref name="Takouleu">{{Cite news|last=Takouleu|first=Jean Marie|date=24 July 2019|title=Stiegler's Gorge dam construction begins on July 26|publisher=Afrik 21|url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725050527/https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|Sun wey dey poke thru de clouds along de river. File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|Rufiji River at [[:en:Selous_Game_Reserve|Selous Game Reserve]]. File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|Elephants along de river. File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|De river bank </gallery> == References == <references /> == Further reading == * [[:en:Felix_A._Chami|Chami, F. A.]] 1999. "The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland." ''Azania'' Vol. XXXIV 1999, pp.&#x20;1–10. * Chami, Felix A. 2002. "The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea." In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp.&#x20;93–104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}. * Miller, J. Innes. 1969. Chapter 8: "The Cinnamon Route". In: ''The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire''. Oxford: University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-814264-1}} * Ray, Himanshu Prabha, ed. 1999. ''Archaeology of Seafaring: The Indian Ocean in the Ancient Period''. Pragati Publications, Delhi. == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120813015647/http://www.waterandnature.org/en/resources/publications/thematic-collection/facts-figures/watersheds-world Map of de Rufiji River basin at Water Resources eAtlas] qc8j3u6f3u6erjndp2nu569tlk30vd8 0 27156 99602 2026-06-01T22:16:32Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1354791315|Niger River]]" 99602 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Niger River''' (/ˈnaɪdʒər/ ''NY-jər''; French: ''(le) fleuve Niger'' [(lə) flœv niʒɛʁ]) be de main river of [[West Africa]], wey dey extend about 4,180 kilometres (2,600 miles). Ein drainage basin be 2,117,700 km2 (817,600 sq mi) in area.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gleick |first=Peter H. |author-link=Peter Gleick |url=https://archive.org/details/worldswater200020000glei/page/33 |title=The World's Water, 2000–2001: The Biennial Report on Freshwater |publisher=Island Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-55963-792-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/worldswater200020000glei/page/33 33] |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}</ref> Ein source dey insyd de Guinea Highlands insyd south-eastern Guinea near de Sierra Leone border.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Niger River |url=https://geography.name/niger-river/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426134355/https://geography.name/niger-river/ |archive-date=26 April 2021 |access-date=26 April 2021 |website=geography.name}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|year=2005|title=Niger River|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Geography|publisher=Facts On File, Inc.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA665|last=Thompson|first=Samuel|editor-last1=McColl|editor-first1=R. W.|page=665|isbn=978-0-8160-7229-3}}</ref> E dey run insyd a crescent shape thru southwest [[Mali]] den thru southwest [[Niger]], on de border plus [[Benin]], den then thru [[Nigeria]], wey dey discharge thru a massive delta, dem know as de Niger Delta,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2002-12-04 |title=Rivers of the World: The Niger River |url=https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/the-niger-river/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027131915/https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/the-niger-river/ |archive-date=2021-10-27 |access-date=2021-11-24 |website=Radio Netherlands Archives |language=en-GB}}</ref> into de [[Gulf of Guinea]] insyd de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. De Niger be de 14th-longest river insyd de world den de third-longest river insyd Africa, wey be exceeded by de [[Nile]] den de Congo River. Ein main tributary be de [[Benue River]].<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web |title=Benue River &#124; Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad &#124; Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Benue-River}}</ref> == Etymology == [[File:Niger,_Boubon_(16),_scene_at_the_river_front.jpg|thumb|Commercial activity along de river front at Boubon, insyd [[Niger]]]] De Niger get different names insyd de different languages of de region: * Fula: ''Maayo Jaaliba'' 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤴𞤮 𞤔𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭𞤦𞤢 * Manding: ''Jeliba'' ߖߋ߬ߟߌߓߊ߬ anaa ''Joliba'' ߖߏ߬ߟߌߓߊ߬ "great river" * Tuareg: ''Eġərəw n-Igərǝwăn'' ⴴⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴴⵔⵓⵏ "river of rivers" * Songhay: ''Isa'' "de river" * Zarma: ''Isa Beeri'' "great river"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Idrissa |first=Abdourahmane |title=Historical Dictionary of Niger |last2=Decalo |first2=Samuel |date=June 1, 2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-6094-0 |edition=4th |location=Plymouth, UK |page=274}}</ref> * Hausa: ''Kwara'' كوَرَ * Nupe: ''Èdù'' * Yoruba: ''Odo Ọya'' "dem name after de Yoruba goddess Ọya, wey be believed to embody de river" * Igbo: ''Orimiri'' anaa ''Orimili'' "great water" * Ijaw: ''Toru Beni'' "de river water" == Climate == As part of de [[West Africa]] Sahel region, de Niger River get a hot climate wey be characterized by very high temperatures year-round; a long, intense dry season from October to May; den a brief, irregular rainy season dem link to de West African monsoon.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kiley |first=Penny |date=2011-12-01 |title=Climate change, water and conflict in the Niger river basin |url=https://www.international-alert.org/publications/climate-change-water-and-conflict-niger-river-basin/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004091209/https://www.international-alert.org/publications/climate-change-water-and-conflict-niger-river-basin/ |archive-date=2023-10-04 |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=International Alert |language=en-GB}}</ref> == Geography == [[File:Mali.A2001291.1045.250m.jpg|right|thumb|De great bend of de Niger River, dem see from space, create a green arc thru de brown of de Sahel den Savanna. De green mass on de left be de Inner Niger Delta, den on de far left be tributaries of de Senegal River.]] [[File:Niger_River_Center_Island.jpg|right|thumb|Mud houses on de center island at Lake Debo, a wide section of de Niger River]] De Niger River be a relatively clear river, wey dey carry only a tenth as much sediment as de Nile secof de Niger ein headwaters dey lie insyd ancient rocks wey provide little silt.{{sfn|Reader|2001|p=191}} Like de Nile, de Niger dey flood yearly; dis dey begin insyd September, peak insyd November, den fini by May.{{sfn|Reader|2001|p=191}} An unusual feature of de river be de Inner Niger Delta, wich dey form wer ein gradient suddenly dey decrease.{{sfn|Reader|2001|p=191}} De result be a region of braided streams, marshes, den large lakes; de seasonal floods dey make de Delta extremely productive give both fishing den agriculture.{{sfn|Reader|2001|pp=191–192}} [[File:The_NIGER_RIVER_boy.jpg|thumb|Boy dey bring back ein canoe on de Niger River (2022)]] === Course === [[File:Niger_river_map.PNG|thumb|Map of de Niger, wey dey show ein watershed den "inland delta"]] === Drainage basin === De Niger River basin, locate insyd western [[Africa]], dey cover 7.5% of de continent den dey spread over ten countries. Niger River basin: areas den rainfall by country<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=1997 |title=Irrigation potential in Africa: A basin approach, The Niger Basin |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/w4347e/w4347e0i.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721033139/http://www.fao.org/docrep/w4347e/w4347e0i.htm |archive-date=2017-07-21 |publisher=[[FAO]]}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! rowspan="2" |Country ! colspan="3" |Area of de country within de basin ! rowspan="2" |Average rainfall insyd de basin (mm) |- !(km²) !(% of total basin) !(% of country within basin) |- |[[Algeria]] |193,449 |8.5 |8% |20 |- |[[Benin]] |46,384 |2.0 |40% |1,055 |- |[[Burkina Faso]] |76,621 |3.4 |28% |655 |- |[[Cameroon]] |89,249 |3.9 |19% |1,330 |- |[[Chad]] |20,339 |0.9 |1.6% |975 |- |[[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]] |23,770 |1.0 |7% |1,466 |- |[[Guinea]] |96,880 |4.3 |39% |1,635 |- |[[Mali]] |578,850 |25.5 |47% |440 |- |[[Niger]] |564,211 |24.8 |45% |280 |- |[[Nigeria]] |584,193 |25.7 |63% |1,185 |- | colspan="4" | |- |''For Niger basin'' |''2,273,946'' |''100.0'' |''ns'' |''690'' |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center;" |+Hydrometric stations on de Niger River: ! rowspan="2" |Station ! rowspan="2" |River kilometer (rkm) ! rowspan="2" |Altitude (m) ! rowspan="2" |Basin size (km²) ! colspan="3" |Multiannual average discharge |- !Year start !(m³/s) !(km³) |- |Niger Delta |0 |0 |2,273,946 |1914 |7,922.3 |250 |- | colspan="7" |'''Lower Niger''' |- |Onitsha |270 |14 |2,240,019 |1914 |6,470.8 |204 |- |Lokoja |480 |34 |2,204,500 |1914 |5,754.7 |182 |- |Baro |600 |47 |1,845,300 |1914 |2,349.8 |74 |- |Jebba |810 |73 |1,751,000 |1970 |1,457.3 |46 |- |Kainji Dam |900 |100 |1,711,300 |1970 |1,153.9 |36 |- | colspan="7" |'''Middle Niger''' |- |Gaya |1,120 |156 |1,404,600 |1929 |1,086.7 |34 |- |Malanville |1,130 |157 |1,399,238 |1929 |1,086.7 |34 |- |Niamey |1,420 |176 |791,121 |1929 |893.4 |28 |- |Ansongo |1,770 |241 |647,527 |1949 |806.8 |26 |- |Gao |1,860 |245 |549,876 |1947 |875.6 |28 |- |Timbuktu |2,460 |256 |382,469 |1975 |950.7 |30 |- | colspan="7" |'''Inner Delta''' |- |Diré |2,540 |257 |372,588 |1924 |1,113 |35 |- |Mopti |2,900 |261 |308,186 |1922 |1,742.9 |55 |- | colspan="7" |'''Upper Niger''' |- |Ké Macina |3,050 |271 |143,361 |1945 |1,330 |42 |- |Ségou |3,200 |280 |132,838 |1945 |1,344.5 |42 |- |Koulikoro |3,440 |289 |119,029 |1907 |1,351 |43 |- |Bamako |3,500 |316 |114,800 |1907 |1,371.2 |43 |- |Siguiri |3,600 |337 |67,631 |1967 |919 |29 |- |Kouroussa |3,800 |357 |18,900 |1950 |232 |7 |- |Faranah |4,040 |424 |3,196 |1950 |69.5 |2 |- | colspan="7" |Source:<ref name="GRDC">{{Cite web |title=GRDC |url=https://www.bafg.de/GRDC/EN/05_cllbrtn/54_rvrbsns/nba.html;jsessionid=B68338B0CA980923BCCBB2D34823EBD4.live21323?nn=201642 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111211402/https://www.bafg.de/GRDC/EN/05_cllbrtn/54_rvrbsns/nba.html;jsessionid=B68338B0CA980923BCCBB2D34823EBD4.live21323?nn=201642 |archive-date=2023-01-11 |access-date=2023-01-11}}</ref><ref name="Niger River">{{Cite web |date=14 June 2023 |title=Niger River |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Niger-River |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230110955/https://www.britannica.com/place/Niger-River |archive-date=30 December 2022 |access-date=11 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Prabhu TL 2021">{{Cite web |last=Prabhu TL |year=2021 |title=Agricultural Engineering: An Introduction To Agricultural Engineering |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t1o0EAAAQBAJ&dq=Niger+6925+m3/s&pg=PT1156 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125071257/https://books.google.com/books?id=t1o0EAAAQBAJ&dq=Niger+6925+m3/s&pg=PT1156 |archive-date=2022-01-25 |access-date=2021-11-18 |publisher=NestFame Creations Pvt. Ltd.}}</ref> |} [[File:River_Niger_at_Bomadi.jpg|thumb|River Niger at Bomadi]] == Discharge == Average discharge of de Niger River at Niger Delta (period from 2010 to 2018):<ref name="Water Accounting in the Niger River Basin">{{Cite book |title=Water Accounting in the Niger River Basin |year=2020 |isbn=978-92-5-133378-5 |doi=10.4060/cb1274en}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! rowspan="2" |Year ! colspan="3" |Average discharge |- !km³ !m³/s !cfs |- |2010 |288.1 |9,130 |322,410 |- |2011 |245.7 |7,786 |274,960 |- |2012 |320.3 |10,150 |358,440 |- |2013 |224.4 |7,111 |251,120 |- |2014 |251.2 |7,960 |281,110 |- |2015 |235.3 |7,456 |263,320 |- |2016 |286.8 |9,088 |320,950 |- |2017 |270.9 |8,585 |303,160 |- |2018 |311.6 |9,874 |348,700 |- | colspan="4" | |- |''2010–2018'' |''270.5'' |'''''8,572''''' |''302,710'' |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center;" |+Average, minimum den maximum discharge of the Niger River at Koulikoro (Upper Niger), Niamey (Middle Niger) and Lokoja (Lower Niger). Period from 2000/06/01 to 2025/05/31. ! rowspan="3" |Water year ! colspan="9" |Discharge (m³/s) |- ! colspan="3" |Koulikoro ! colspan="3" |Niamey ! colspan="3" |Lokoja |- !Min !Mean !Max !Min !Mean !Max !Min !Mean !Max |- |2000/01 |149 |1,150 |3,860 |70.6 |942 |1,810 |2,112 |8,504 |32,080 |- |2001/02 |140 |1,270 |5,520 |48.9 |895 |1,680 |2,157 |5,338 |18,885 |- |2002/03 |177 |904 |3,120 |90.4 |796 |1,610 |2,000 |5,297 |17,012 |- |2003/04 |92.7 |1,230 |5,210 |21.6 |922 |1,870 |1,592 |6,225 |19,025 |- |2004/05 |120 |876 |3,370 |59 |890 |1,880 |2,107 |5,683 |16,098 |- |2005/06 |121 |1,060 |3,400 |73.9 |856 |1,660 |1,801 |4,849 |13,792 |- |2006/07 |143 |1,111 |3,631 |47.4 |855 |1,710 |1,781 |5,291 |19,389 |- |2007/08 |34.2 |962 |4,854 |33.2 |925 |1,840 |2,227 |6,767 |19,941 |- |2008/09 |135 |1,443 |4,837 |34 |945 |1,830 |1,535 |6,161 |20,426 |- |2009/10 |142 |1,302 |4,660 | colspan="3" rowspan="2" | |2,101 |7,637 |20,534 |- |2010/11 |170 |1,260 |3,916 |2,166 |7,225 |21,272 |- |2011/12 |92 |924 |3,912 | |801 | |1,835 |5,736 |16,912 |- |2012/13 |149 |1,146 |4,562 |73 |1,115 |2,492 |1,731 |8,612 |31,692 |- |2013/14 |137 |1,080 |6,297 | |852 | |1,546 |5,783 |16,430 |- |2014/15 |104 |863 |3,695 |53 |752 |1,542 |1,570 |6,352 |19,664 |- |2015/16 |129 |1,002 |3,719 |53 |958 |2,123 |1,753 |6,054 |27,285 |- |2016/17 |106 |974 |5,845 | |1,059 | |2,550 |7,272 |20,613 |- |2017/18 |77 |677 |2,338 |107 |801 |1,791 |2,058 |6,781 |21,020 |- |2018/19 |43 |1,256 |7,555 | |1,223 | |2,046 |7,900 |25,612 |- |2019/20 |174 |933 |4,158 |10 |1,060 |2,677 |1,594 |8,751 |24,800 |- |2020/21 |66 |999 |5,023 |58 |1,418 |3,398 |2,131 |7,570 |28,082 |- |2021/22 |77 |824 |3,275 |135 |1,106 |2,121 |2,021 |5,913 |17,688 |- |2022/23 |66 |891 |3,851 |44 |1,074 |1,869 |1,997 |8,288 |33,136 |- |2023/24 |55 |748 |3,401 |44 |874 |1,595 |2,107 |7,491 |20,578 |- |2024/25 |55 |1,331 |6,192 |49 |1,394 |2,438 |1,826 |7,100 |24,835 |- | colspan="10" |Source:<ref name="Essai de segmentation">{{Cite web |last=Tommaso |first=Abrate |last2=Prof. Pierre |first2=Hubert |year=2007 |title=Essai de segmentation des sèries annuelles des dèbits du Niger aux stations de Koulikoro, Niamey at Lokoja |url=http://m2hh.metis.upmc.fr/wp-content/uploads/arch/memories2007/Abrate_memorie07.pdf}}</ref><ref name="AUTORITE DU BASSIN DU NIGER">{{Cite web |title=AUTORITE DU BASSIN DU NIGER |url=http://www.abn.ne/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=28&lang=en&ltemid=28&lang=en}}</ref> |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center;" |+Niger River at Lokoja average, minimum and maximum discharge (1946 to 2023): ! rowspan="2" |Water year ! colspan="3" |Discharge (m³/s) ! rowspan="2" |Water year ! colspan="3" |Discharge (m³/s) |- !Min !''Mean'' !Max !Min !''Mean'' !Max |- |1946/47 |788 |''4,824'' |16,600 |1985/86 |1,110 |''4,601'' |15,800 |- |1947/48 |1,010 |''6,258'' |21,000 |1986/87 |1,210 |''4,027'' |11,400 |- |1948/49 |915 |''6,427'' |20,900 |1987/88 |1,390 |''3,849'' |11,800 |- |1949/50 |842 |''5,849'' |19,200 |1988/89 |1,070 |''4,615'' |15,100 |- |1950/51 |935 |''4,755'' |15,000 |1989/90 |1,110 |''5,589'' |16,300 |- |1951/52 |1,290 |''6,662'' |20,400 |1990/91 |1,790 |''5,045'' |14,800 |- |1952/53 |2,260 |''5,674'' |18,300 |1991/92 |1,770 |''6,387'' |18,400 |- |1953/54 |1,840 |''6,405'' |18,500 |1992/93 |1,930 |''5,570'' |15,300 |- |1954/55 |2,130 |''7,733'' |24,900 |1993/94 |1,949 |''4,908'' |11,895 |- |1955/56 |2,400 |''8,247'' |24,600 |1994/95 |1,945 |''5,915'' |20,418 |- |1956/57 |1,870 |''5,394'' |18,100 |1995/96 |1,945 |''6,284'' |17,713 |- |1957/58 |1,480 |''7,769'' |23,600 |1996/97 |2,103 |''6,020'' |19,914 |- |1958/59 |2,020 |''4,828'' |14,700 |1997/98 |2,406 |''5,677'' |15,548 |- |1959/60 |1,530 |''5,228'' |18,300 |1998/99 |2,315 |''7,175'' |23,491 |- |1960/61 |1,250 |''6,707'' |22,200 |1999/00 |2,618 |''7,652'' |23,090 |- |1961/62 |979 |''4,912'' |15,500 |2000/01 |2,112 |''8,504'' |32,080 |- |1962/63 |1,150 |''7,101'' |24,100 |2001/02 |2,157 |''5,338'' |18,885 |- |1963/64 |1,710 |''6,764'' |20,500 |2002/03 |2,000 |''5,297'' |17,012 |- |1964/65 |1,160 |''6,128'' |20,800 |2003/04 |1,592 |''6,225'' |19,025 |- |1965/66 |1,310 |''5,914'' |18,600 |2004/05 |2,107 |''5,683'' |16,098 |- |1966/67 |1,320 |''6,545'' |20,000 |2005/06 |1,801 |''4,849'' |13,792 |- |1967/68 |928 |''5,812'' |19,700 |2006/07 |1,781 |''5,291'' |19,389 |- |1968/69 |1,720 |''6,558'' |18,800 |2007/08 |2,227 |''6,767'' |19,941 |- |1969/70 |1,630 |''7,927'' |23,500 |2008/09 |1,535 |''6,161'' |20,426 |- |1970/71 |1,640 |''6,229'' |20,100 |2009/10 |2,101 |''7,637'' |20,534 |- |1971/72 |1,270 |''5,360'' |17,600 |2010/11 |2,166 |''7,225'' |21,272 |- |1972/73 |1,410 |''4,489'' |14,400 |2011/12 |1,835 |''5,736'' |16,912 |- |1973/74 |839 |''3,698'' |12,200 |2012/13 |1,731 |''8,612'' |31,692 |- |1974/75 |832 |''5,275'' |17,100 |2013/14 |1,546 |''5,783'' |16,430 |- |1975/76 |1,300 |''5,848'' |19,600 |2014/15 |1,570 |''6,352'' |19,664 |- |1976/77 |1,320 |''5,136'' |12,000 |2015/16 |1,753 |''6,054'' |27,285 |- |1977/78 |1,310 |''4,662'' |15,500 |2016/17 |2,550 |''6,555'' |20,613 |- |1978/79 |1,080 |''5,636'' |17,000 |2017/18 |2,058 |''6,781'' |21,020 |- |1979/80 |1,210 |''5,510'' |17,800 |2018/19 |2,046 |''7,900'' |25,612 |- |1980/81 |1,400 |''5,215'' |16,700 |2019/20 |1,594 |''8,751'' |24,800 |- |1981/82 |1,340 |''5,312'' |18,400 |2020/21 |2,131 |''7,570'' |28,082 |- |1982/83 |1,330 |''4,270'' |11,600 |2021/22 |2,021 |''5,913'' |17,688 |- |1983/84 |862 |''2,877'' |9,180 |2022/23 |1,997 |''8,288'' |33,136 |- |1984/85 |862 |''3,058'' |8,490 |2023/24 |2,107 |''7,491'' |20,578 |- | colspan="8" |Source:<ref name="Essai de segmentation">{{Cite web |last=Tommaso |first=Abrate |last2=Prof. Pierre |first2=Hubert |year=2007 |title=Essai de segmentation des sèries annuelles des dèbits du Niger aux stations de Koulikoro, Niamey at Lokoja |url=http://m2hh.metis.upmc.fr/wp-content/uploads/arch/memories2007/Abrate_memorie07.pdf}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFTommasoProf._Pierre2007">Tommaso, Abrate; Prof. Pierre, Hubert (2007). </cite></ref><ref name="AUTORITE DU BASSIN DU NIGER">{{Cite web |title=AUTORITE DU BASSIN DU NIGER |url=http://www.abn.ne/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=28&lang=en&ltemid=28&lang=en}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[http://www.abn.ne/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=28&lang=en&ltemid=28&lang=en "AUTORITE DU BASSIN DU NIGER"].</cite></ref> |} == Tributaries == De main tributaries from de mouth: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" !Left tributary !Right tributary !Length (km) !Basin size (km²) !Average discharge (m³/s) |- | colspan="5" |'''Niger Delta''' |- |Sombreiro | |60 |1,500 |65 |- | |Warri |100 |1,300 |38.3 |- | |Okpare |40 |1,100 |73.1 |- | |Eriola |50 |1,000 |30.8 |- |Ase (Asse) | |180 |3,500 |133.6 |- | |Orashi |205 |2,800 |147.8 |- | colspan="5" |'''Lower Niger''' |- |Anambra | |256 |14,014 |400.3 |- | |Otaw |40 |1,100 |48.9 |- | |Awele (Edien) |80 |3,300 |111.2 |- | |Ubo |70 |1,400 |25.8 |- | |Aguro |70 |1,900 |28.9 |- | |Oiryi (Oji) |67.72 |927 |15.7 |- |[[Benue River|Benue]] | |1,400 |338,385 |3,477 |- |Gurara | |570 |15,254 |183.9 |- | |Epu |80 |800 |11.7 |- |Etsuan | |70 |1,450 |16.6 |- | |Kampe |175 |9,560 |126.5 |- |Gbako | |156 |7,540 |89.8 |- |Kaduna | |575 |65,878 |641.5 |- | |Oro |113 |4,500 |71 |- |Yunko | |70 |1,698 |15.9 |- | |Oyi |120 |2,100 |30.2 |- | |Oshin |125 |2,132 |27.5 |- | |Awun |115.5 |6,300 |81 |- |Eku | |90 |3,230 |25.3 |- | |Moshi |232.22 |9,400 |69.5 |- | |Oli |300 |11,200 |86.6 |- |Kontagora | |150 |4,500 |30.8 |- | |Tama |55 |900 |4 |- | |Menai |80 |1,300 |8.7 |- | |Swashi |100 |1,500 |10.4 |- | |Kpan |70 |1,800 |11.6 |- |Malendo | |220 |9,127 |62.9 |- |Baduru | |75 |1,500 |9.8 |- |Dan Zakhi | |110 |3,000 |26.7 |- |Sokoto | |628 |193,000 |294.1 |- | |Shodu |100 |3,900 |22.3 |- |Dallol Maouri | |250 |72,551 |10.5 |- | |Sota |254 |13,500 |50.3 |- | |Alibori |408 |13,650 |55.6 |- | |Diare |90 |2,000 |5.6 |- | colspan="5" |'''Middle Niger''' |- |Dallol Bosso | |350 |556,000 |4.4 |- | |Mékrou |410 |10,635 |32.5 |- | |Tapoa |260 |5,500 |10.2 |- | |Diamangou |200 |4,400 |5.5 |- | |Goroubi |433 |15.500 |10.2 |- | |Sirba |439 |39,138 |27.2 |- | |Gorouol |250 |60,842 |9 |- |Tilemsi | | |93,920 | |- | colspan="5" |'''Inner Delta''' |- | |Bani |1,100 |129,400 |559 |- | colspan="5" |'''Upper Niger''' |- | |Sankarani |679 |33,288 |305.6 |- | |Fié |210 |4,045 |31.7 |- |Koda (Koba) | |80 |4,940 |7.7 |- |Tinkisso | |570 |19,430 |181 |- | |Milo |430 |13,590 |188 |- | |Niandan |300 |12,930 |251 |- | |Mafou |160 |4,075 |62.3 |- |Niantan | |60 | |12.1 |- |Bale | |80 | |31.6 |} == References == 668kxal8e32c0x2stto8z42fmw832vd 14 27157 99605 2026-06-01T22:33:43Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99605 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27158 99606 2026-06-01T22:34:00Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99606 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27159 99607 2026-06-01T22:34:14Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99607 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27160 99608 2026-06-01T22:34:31Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99608 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27161 99609 2026-06-01T22:42:42Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99609 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27162 99610 2026-06-01T22:42:53Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99610 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27163 99611 2026-06-01T22:43:08Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99611 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27164 99617 2026-06-02T00:12:11Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99617 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27165 99618 2026-06-02T00:12:23Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99618 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27166 99619 2026-06-02T00:12:35Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99619 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27167 99620 2026-06-02T00:12:47Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99620 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27168 99621 2026-06-02T00:14:06Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99621 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27169 99622 2026-06-02T00:14:18Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99622 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27170 99623 2026-06-02T00:14:31Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99623 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27171 99624 2026-06-02T00:14:54Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99624 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27172 99625 2026-06-02T00:15:10Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99625 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27173 99626 2026-06-02T00:15:51Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99626 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27174 99627 2026-06-02T00:16:14Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 99627 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27176 99653 2026-06-02T11:41:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99653 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Gambia River''' (dem formerly know am as de '''River Gambra''', [[:en:French_language|French]]: ''Fleuve Gambie'', [[:en:Portuguese_language|Portuguese]]: ''Rio Gâmbia'') be a major river for [[:en:West_Africa|West Africa]] insyd, wey e run {{convert|1120|km|mi}} from de [[:en:Fouta_Djallon|Fouta Djallon]] plateau for north [[:en:Guinea|Guinea]] insyd westward thru [[:en:Senegal|Senegal]] den [[:en:The_Gambia|De Gambia]] to de [[:en:Atlantic_Ocean|Atlantic Ocean]] at de city of [[:en:Banjul|Banjul]]. E dey [[:en:Navigability|navigable]] for about half dat length. Dem strongly associate de river plus De Gambia, de smallest country for mainland Africa insyd, wey occupy de downstream half of de river den ein two banks. hrgvqv5xprjl87yo4kxl8crknm74oz5 99654 99653 2026-06-02T11:43:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99654 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Gambia River''' (dem formerly know am as de '''River Gambra''', [[:en:French_language|French]]: ''Fleuve Gambie'', [[:en:Portuguese_language|Portuguese]]: ''Rio Gâmbia'') be a major river for [[:en:West_Africa|West Africa]] insyd, wey e run {{convert|1120|km|mi}} from de [[:en:Fouta_Djallon|Fouta Djallon]] plateau for north [[:en:Guinea|Guinea]] insyd westward thru [[:en:Senegal|Senegal]] den [[:en:The_Gambia|De Gambia]] to de [[:en:Atlantic_Ocean|Atlantic Ocean]] at de city of [[:en:Banjul|Banjul]]. E dey [[:en:Navigability|navigable]] for about half dat length. Dem strongly associate de river plus De Gambia, de smallest country for mainland Africa insyd, wey occupy de downstream half of de river den ein two banks. bynvrwhfsic02o7ldqkfe1yp44yrlga 99655 99654 2026-06-02T11:55:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99655 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Gambia River''' (dem formerly know am as de '''River Gambra''', [[:en:French_language|French]]: ''Fleuve Gambie'', [[:en:Portuguese_language|Portuguese]]: ''Rio Gâmbia'') be a major river for [[:en:West_Africa|West Africa]] insyd, wey e run {{convert|1120|km|mi}} from de [[:en:Fouta_Djallon|Fouta Djallon]] plateau for north [[:en:Guinea|Guinea]] insyd westward thru [[:en:Senegal|Senegal]] den [[:en:The_Gambia|De Gambia]] to de [[:en:Atlantic_Ocean|Atlantic Ocean]] at de city of [[:en:Banjul|Banjul]]. E dey [[:en:Navigability|navigable]] give about half dat length. Dem strongly associate de river plus De Gambia, de smallest country for mainland Africa insyd, wey occupy de downstream half of de river den ein two banks. == Geography == De Gambia River dey run a total length of {{convert|1120|km}}. t6kr4m8ypazeadrxft03sbv2husm8xv 99656 99655 2026-06-02T11:55:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99656 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Gambia River''' (dem formerly know am as de '''River Gambra''', [[:en:French_language|French]]: ''Fleuve Gambie'', [[:en:Portuguese_language|Portuguese]]: ''Rio Gâmbia'') be a major river for [[:en:West_Africa|West Africa]] insyd, wey e run {{convert|1120|km|mi}} from de [[:en:Fouta_Djallon|Fouta Djallon]] plateau for north [[:en:Guinea|Guinea]] insyd westward thru [[:en:Senegal|Senegal]] den [[:en:The_Gambia|De Gambia]] to de [[:en:Atlantic_Ocean|Atlantic Ocean]] at de city of [[:en:Banjul|Banjul]]. E dey [[:en:Navigability|navigable]] give about half dat length. Dem strongly associate de river plus De Gambia, de smallest country for mainland Africa insyd, wey occupy de downstream half of de river den ein two banks. == Geography == De Gambia River dey run a total length of {{convert|1120|km}}. From de Fouta Djallon, e dey run northwest into de [[:en:Tambacounda_Region|Tambacounda Region]] of Senegal, e dey flow thru de [[:en:Parc_National_du_Niokolo_Koba|Parc National du Niokolo Koba]], then de [[:en:Nieri_Ko|Nieri Ko]] den {{ill|Koulountou|fr|Koulountou}} join am den dey pass thru de [[:en:Barrakunda_Falls|Barrakunda Falls]] before e enter de Gambia at Koina. 60lxvtdv25cq7ndazxkmlcebn364beq 99657 99656 2026-06-02T11:56:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 99657 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Gambia River''' (dem formerly know am as de '''River Gambra''', [[:en:French_language|French]]: ''Fleuve Gambie'', [[:en:Portuguese_language|Portuguese]]: ''Rio Gâmbia'') be a major river for [[:en:West_Africa|West Africa]] insyd, wey e run {{convert|1120|km|mi}} from de [[:en:Fouta_Djallon|Fouta Djallon]] plateau for north [[:en:Guinea|Guinea]] insyd westward thru [[:en:Senegal|Senegal]] den [[:en:The_Gambia|De Gambia]] to de [[:en:Atlantic_Ocean|Atlantic Ocean]] at de city of [[:en:Banjul|Banjul]]. E dey [[:en:Navigability|navigable]] give about half dat length. Dem strongly associate de river plus De Gambia, de smallest country for mainland Africa insyd, wey occupy de downstream half of de river den ein two banks. == Geography == De Gambia River dey run a total length of {{convert|1120|km}}. From de Fouta Djallon, e dey run northwest into de [[:en:Tambacounda_Region|Tambacounda Region]] of Senegal, e dey flow thru de [[:en:Parc_National_du_Niokolo_Koba|Parc National du Niokolo Koba]], then de [[:en:Nieri_Ko|Nieri Ko]] den {{ill|Koulountou|fr|Koulountou}} join am den dey pass thru de [[:en:Barrakunda_Falls|Barrakunda Falls]] before e enter de Gambia at Koina. At dis point, de river dey run generally west, but for a meandering course insyd plus a number of [[:en:Oxbow_lake|oxbows]], den about {{convert|100|km}} from ein mouth e dey gradually widen, to ova {{convert|10|km}} wide wey e dey meet de sea. huajp69c4qxxooikhpe5v4w0fwg5s0x