Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.5 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 8257 100397 96892 2026-06-06T05:47:38Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 100397 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''2008 Summer Olympics''' (Chinese: 2008年夏季奥运会; pinyin: ''Èr Líng Líng Bā Nián Xiàjì Àoyùnhuì''), officially de '''Games of the XXIX Olympiad''' (Chinese: 第二十九届夏季奥林匹克运动会; pinyin: ''Dì Èrshíjiǔ Jiè Xiàjì Àolínpǐkè Yùndònghuì'') wey dem officially brand am as '''Beijing 2008''' (Chinese: 北京2008; pinyin: ''Běijīng èr líng líng bā''), na ebe international multisport event dem hold from 8 to 24 August 2008, insyd Beijing, China. Total of 10,942 athletes wey komot 204 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) compete insyd 28 sports den 302 events, one event more dan those dem schedule give de 2004 Summer Olympics.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/beijing-2008-summer-olympics "Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics Games"]. International Olympic Committee. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110623041355/http://www.olympic.org/beijing-2008-summer-olympics Archived] from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2012.</ref> Na dis be de first time China host de Olympic Games, den de third time dem hold de Summer Olympic Games insyd East Asia, dey follow de 1964 Olympics insyd Tokyo, Japan, den de 1988 Olympics insyd Seoul, South Korea. Na dese sanso be de second Summer Olympic Games make dem hold insyd communist state, de first be de 1980 Summer Olympics insyd de Soviet Union (plus venues insyd Russia, Ukraine, Byelorussia, den Estonia). Na dem award Beijing de 2008 Games over four competitors for 13 July 2001, dem win majority of votes from members of de International Olympic Committee (IOC) after two rounds of voting.<ref name=":0">Longman, Jere (14 July 2001). [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/14/sports/olympics-beijing-wins-bid-for-2008-olympic-games.html "OLYMPICS; Beijing Wins Bid for 2008 Olympic Games"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20101124165513/http://nytimes.com/2001/07/14/sports/olympics-beijing-wins-bid-for-2008-olympic-games.html Archived] from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 4 February 2011.</ref> De Government of de People's Republic of China promote de 2008 Games wey e invest heavily insyd fresh facilities den transport systems. Na dem use 37 venues make dem host de events, wey dey include twelve dem construct specifically give de 2008 Games. Na dem hold de equestrian events insyd Hong Kong, dey make dese de third Olympics for wich na dem hold de events under de jurisdiction of two different NOCs.Na dem contest de sailing events insyd Qingdao, while de football events take place across chaw different cities. De official logo give de 2008 Games, dem title "Dancing Beijing" (舞动北京), Guo Chunning wey create am (郭春宁), dem feature de Chinese character give ''capital'' (京, dem stylize into de shape of human being) for reference to de host city. Na 3.5 billion people worldwide watch de 2008 Olympics, wey e feature de longest distance give Olympic Torch relay.<ref>[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/longest-distance-for-an-olympic-torch-relay "Longest distance for an Olympic torch relay"]. ''Guinness World Records''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180612170947/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/longest-distance-for-an-olympic-torch-relay Archived] from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 10 June 2018.</ref><ref>Fixmer, Andy (5 September 2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20090919155334/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=conewsstory&tkr=62553Q%3AUS&sid=aT3QhOOTmtmQ "Beijing Olympics Attracted Most Viewers, Nielsen Says"]. ''Bloomberg''. Archived from [https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=conewsstory&tkr=62553Q%3AUS&sid=aT3QhOOTmtmQ the original] on 19 September 2009. Retrieved 4 February 2011.</ref> De 2008 Games sanso set chaw world den Olympic records, wey na ebe de most expensive Summer Olympics of all time, den de second most expensive overall, after de 2014 Winter Games insyd Sochi.<ref>Rabinovitch, Simon. [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-olympics-cost/beijing-games-to-be-costliest-but-no-debt-legacy-idUSPEK25823820080805 "Beijing Games to be costliest, but no debt legacy"]. ''U.S''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141518/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-olympics-cost/beijing-games-to-be-costliest-but-no-debt-legacy-idUSPEK25823820080805 Archived] from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 10 June 2018.</ref><ref>[https://www.forbes.com/pictures/54f4e720da47a54de8245dda/1-2008-beijing-games---40/ "#1: 2008 Beijing Games - $40 billion - pg.2"]. ''Forbes''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180612144218/https://www.forbes.com/pictures/54f4e720da47a54de8245dda/1-2008-beijing-games---40/ Archived] from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 10 June 2018.</ref> Na de opening ceremony be lauded by spectators den chaw international presses as spectacular, spellbinding, den by chaw accounts, "the greatest ever in the history of Olympics".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080812004040/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5ibNAUAq-kZNOy3LmO9HAI2cN-smg "Press hails 'greatest ever' Olympic opening show"]. Agence France-Presse. 9 August 2008. Archived from [http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5ibNAUAq-kZNOy3LmO9HAI2cN-smg the original] on 12 August 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/olympics/2008-08/24/content_6966682.htm "World records set in Beijing Olympics"]. ''chinadaily.com.cn''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141832/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/olympics/2008-08/24/content_6966682.htm Archived] from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 10 June 2018.</ref><ref>[https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/china-to-showcase-art-performance-directed-by-zhang-yimou-at-pyeongchang-winter "China to showcase art performance directed by Zhang Yimou at Pyeongchang Winter Olympics"]. ''The Straits Times''. 27 January 2018. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180612144003/https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/china-to-showcase-art-performance-directed-by-zhang-yimou-at-pyeongchang-winter Archived] from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 10 June 2018.</ref> Beijing host de 2022 Winter Olympics, wey make am de first city ever make e host both de Summer den Winter Games. Unprecedented 87 countries win at least one medal during de 2008 Games. Host nation China win de most gold medals (48), wey e cam turn de seventh different team make e top overall Summer Olympics medal tally, dey win total of 100 medals overall. De United States place second insyd de gold medal tally buh dem win de highest number of medals overall (112). Na Russia achieve de third place insyd de gold medal tally. Dis Olympic Games mark de return of de Summer Olympic Games to Asia after de 1988 Olympics insyd South Korea. Na ebe de first Olympics give Serbia as separate state since 1912 den de first give Montenegro, as dem separate from Serbia insyd 2006. Na e sanso be de first Olympics give Nepal as republic, de Marshall Islands den Tuvalu. Mongolia den Panama each win dema first Olympic gold medal. For addition, Afghanistan, [[Mauritius]], Serbia, [[Sudan]], Tajikistan den [[Togo]] win dema first Olympic medals for dese Games. North Korea, dem symbolically march plus South Korea as one team for de opening ceremonies of de preceding three Games wey na e enter (2000 insyd Sydney, 2004 insyd Athens, den [[2006 Winter Olympics|2006]] insyd Turin), dem parade separately dis time. == Organization == === Bid === Under de direction of Liu Qi, na dem elect Beijing as de host city give de 2008 Summer Olympics for 13 July 2001, during de 112th IOC Session insyd Moscow, dem defeat bids from Toronto, Paris, Istanbul, den Osaka. Prior to de session, na five oda cities (Bangkok, Cairo, Havana, Kuala Lumpur, den Seville) submit bids to de IOC, buh dem fail make dem make de short list dem choose by de IOC Executive Committee insyd 2000. After de first round of voting, Beijing hold significant lead over de oda four candidates. Osaka receive six votes per wey n dem eliminate am. Insyd de second round, na majority of voters support Beijing, wey eliminate de need for subsequent rounds.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/beijing/election_uk.asp "Beijing 2008: Election"]. International Olympic Committee. [https://web.archive.org/web/20061205234608/http://olympic.org/uk/games/beijing/election_uk.asp Archived] from the original on 5 December 2006. Retrieved 18 December 2006.</ref> Na Toronto ein bid be ein fifth failure since 1960 (fail bids for 1960, 1964, 1976 den 1996 Games, wey e loose to Rome, Tokyo, Montreal den Atlanta).<ref>Peter Edwards (24 July 2015). [https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2015/07/24/toronto-has-made-5-attempts-to-host-the-olympics-could-the-sixth-be-the-winner.html "Toronto has made 5 attempts to host the Olympics. Could the sixth be the winner?"]. ''Toronto Star''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150910160435/http://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2015/07/24/toronto-has-made-5-attempts-to-host-the-olympics-could-the-sixth-be-the-winner.html Archived] from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2015.</ref> Na members of de IOC no disclose dema votes, buh news reports speculate say broad international support lead to China ein selection, especially from developing nations wey na receive assistance from China make dem construct stadiums. De size of China, ein increased enforcement of doping controls, den sympathy wey dey concern ein loss of de 2000 Summer Olympics to Sydney na all be factors insyd de decision.<ref name=":0" /> Eight years earlier, na Beijing lead every round of voting give de 2000 Summer Olympics before dem loose to Sydney by two votes insyd de final round.<ref>Riding, Alan (24 September 1993). [https://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/24/sports/olympics-2000-olympics-go-to-sydney-in-surprise-setback-for-china.html "Olympics; 2000 Olympics Go to Sydney In Surprise Setback for China"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20101130021127/http://nytimes.com/1993/09/24/sports/olympics-2000-olympics-go-to-sydney-in-surprise-setback-for-china.html Archived] from the original on 30 November 2010. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref> Na de delegates consider human rights concerns express by Amnesty International den politicians insyd both Europe den North America, according to IOC Executive Director François Carrard. Carrard den odas suggest say de selection fi lead to improvements insyd human rights for China insyd. For addition, chaw IOC delegates wey na dem formerly be athletes express concern about heat den air quality during de Games, dey consider de high levels of air pollution insyd Beijing. China outline plans make dem address dese environmental concerns insyd ein bid application.<ref name=":0" /> {| class="wikitable" |+2008 Summer Olympics bidding results ! rowspan="2" |City ! rowspan="2" |Country ! colspan="2" style="background:silver;" |Round |- ! style="background:silver;" |1 ! style="background:silver;" |2 |- |'''Beijing''' |'''China''' | style="text-align:center;" |'''44''' | style="text-align:center;" |'''56''' |- |Toronto |Canada | style="text-align:center;" |20 | style="text-align:center;" |22 |- |Paris |France | style="text-align:center;" |15 | style="text-align:center;" |18 |- |Istanbul |Turkey | style="text-align:center;" |17 | style="text-align:center;" |9 |- |Osaka |Japan | style="text-align:center;" |6 | style="text-align:center;" |— |} === Costs === [[File:Beijing_Olympic_Green.jpg|thumb|Olympic Green, from top]] [[File:Beijing_China_Beijing-National-Stadium-02.jpg|thumb|Beijing National Stadium, anaa "Bird's Nest"]] [[File:国家游泳中心夜景.jpg|thumb|National Aquatics Center anaa "Water Cube"]] [[File:Beijing_National_Indoor_Stadium_2019_2.jpg|thumb|National Indoor Stadium]] [[File:北京五棵松蓝球场_-_panoramio.jpg|thumb|Wukesong Indoor Stadium]] For 6 March 2009, de Beijing Organizing Committee for de Olympic Games report say na total spending give de Games be "generally as much as that of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games", wich na ebe equivalent to about US$15 billion. Dem go on make dem claim say surplus revenues from de Games go exceed de original target of $16 million.<ref>[http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90776/90884/6608035.html "Surplus of Beijing Olympic Games exceeds 16 million USD"]. People's Daily Online. 6 March 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110624100914/http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90776/90884/6608035.html Archived] from the original on 24 June 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref> Oda reports, however, estimate de total costs from $40 to $44 billion, wich go make de Games "far and away the most expensive ever".<ref>Rabinovitch, Simon (5 August 2008). [https://www.reuters.com/article/GCA-Olympics/idUSPEK25823820080805 "Beijing Games to be costliest, but no debt legacy"]. ''Reuters''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090714014915/http://www.reuters.com/article/GCA-Olympics/idUSPEK25823820080805 Archived] from the original on 14 July 2009. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref><ref>[http://english.pravda.ru/sports/games/06-08-2008/106003-beijing_olympics-0/ "Beijing Olympics to cost China 44 billion dollars"]. ''Pravda''. 8 August 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120802050026/http://english.pravda.ru/sports/games/06-08-2008/106003-beijing_olympics-0/ Archived] from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2012.</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2008/jul/28/olympicgames2008.china1 "The cost of the Beijing Olympics"]. ''The Guardian''. London. 28 July 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130902123910/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2008/jul/28/olympicgames2008.china1 Archived] from the original on 2 September 2013. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref> Na ein budget later exceed by de 2014 Winter Olympics insyd Sochi, wich suffer from major cost overruns; de 2014 Winter Olympics cost roughly US$50 billion insyd public funding.<ref>Paul Farhi (10 February 2014). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/did-the-winter-olympics-in-sochi-really-cost-50-billion-a-closer-look-at-that-figure/2014/02/10/a29e37b4-9260-11e3-b46a-5a3d0d2130da_story.html "Did the Winter Olympics in Sochi really cost $50 billion? A closer look at that figure"]. ''Washington Post''.</ref> De ''Oxford Olympics Study 2016'' dey estimate de outturn cost of de Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics for US$6.8 billion insyd 2015-dollars. Dis dey include sports-related costs per, such as those dem incur by de organizing committee anaa those dem incur by de host city, country, den private investors make dem build structures dem require make dem host de Games. Indirect capital costs—those wey no directly relate to staging tde Games—dem no include. De Beijing Olympics ein cost of US$6.8 billion dey compare plus costs of US$4.6 billion for Rio 2016 den US$15 billion for London 2012.<ref>Flyvbjerg, Bent; Stewart, Allison; Budzier, Alexander (2016). ''The Oxford Olympics Study 2016: Cost and Cost Overrun at the Games''. Oxford: Saïd Business School Working Papers (Oxford: University of Oxford). pp. 18–20. arXiv:[[arxiv:1607.04484|1607.04484]]. doi:[[doi:10.2139/ssrn.2804554|10.2139/ssrn.2804554]]. ISSN [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068 1556-5068]. SSRN [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2804554 2804554].</ref> === Venues === By May 2007 na dem begin de construction of all 31 Beijing-based Olympic Games venues.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080126161002/http://en.beijing2008.cn/01/32/article214073201.shtml "All Beijing-based Olympic venues under construction"]. ''Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games''. 11 May 2007. Archived from [http://en.beijing2008.cn/01/32/article214073201.shtml the original] on 26 January 2008. Retrieved 11 May 2007.</ref> De Chinese government renovate den construct six venues outsyd Beijing, wey dem construct 59 training facilities. Na de largest structures dem build be de Beijing National Stadium, Beijing National Indoor Stadium, Beijing National Aquatics Center, Peking University Gymnasium, Olympic Green Convention Center, Olympic Green, den Beijing Wukesong Culture & Sports Center. Na dem fund almost 85% of de construction budget for de six main venues by $2.1 billion (RMB¥17.4 billion) insyd corporate bids den tenders. Na dem expect investments from corporations wey dey seek ownership rights after de Olympics.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090818060103/http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/showsports.aspx?id=SPOEN20080060086&ch=8%2F4%2F2008%209%3A09%3A00%20PM "Beijing Olympics funding exceeds $43 bn"]. NDTV.com. 4 August 2008. Archived from [http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/showsports.aspx?id=SPOEN20080060086&ch=8/4/2008%209:09:00%20PM the original] on 18 August 2009. Retrieved 10 August 2008.</ref> Na dem hold sam events outsyd Beijing, namely football insyd Qinhuangdao, Shanghai, Shenyang, den Tianjin; sailing insyd Qingdao; den, secof de "uncertainties of equine diseases and major difficulties in establishing a disease-free zone", na dem hold de equestrian events insyd Hong Kong.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080809223815/http://en.beijing2008.cn/venues/equ/index.shtml "Hong Kong Olympic Equestrian Venue"]. Beijing Organizing Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad. Archived from [http://en.beijing2008.cn/venues/equ/index.shtml the original] on 9 August 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2008.</ref> Na dem build sam stadiums for de former site of hutong neighbourhoods, wey dey include Qianmen Subdistrict.<ref>Yardley, Jim (12 July 2006). [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/12/world/asia/12beijing.html "Olympics Imperil Historic Beijing Neighborhood"]. ''New York Times''. Retrieved 26 March 2023.</ref> Na de showpiece of de 2008 Summer Olympics be de Beijing National Stadium, dem nickname am "The Bird's Nest" secof ein nest-like skeletal structure. De stadium host both de opening den closing ceremonies, as well as de athletics competition.<ref>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/supporters-protesters-greet-olympic-torch-s-arrival-in-beijing-1.701340 "Supporters, protesters greet Olympic torch's arrival in Beijing"]. ''CBC News''. 6 August 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081231233748/https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/supporters-protesters-greet-olympic-torch-s-arrival-in-beijing-1.701340 Archived] from the original on 31 December 2008. Retrieved 20 June 2009.</ref> Construction of de venue begin for 24 December 2003. Na dem originally plan, construct, den plete Guangdong Olympic Stadium insyd 2001 make dem help host de Games, buh na dem make decision make dem construct fresh stadium insyd Beijing.<ref>Libby, Brian (1 May 2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20090423073050/http://www.architectureweek.com/2002/0501/design_1-1.html "China's Banner Stadium"]. ''Architecture Week''. Archived from [http://www.architectureweek.com/2002/0501/design_1-1.html the original] on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref> Insyd 2001, de city hold bidding process make e select de best arena design. Na dem require several criteria of each design, wey dey include flexibility for post-Olympics use, retractable roof, den low maintenance costs.<ref name=":1">Lubow, Arthur (6 May 2006). [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/21/magazine/21bejing.html "The China Syndrome"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20121113083951/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/21/magazine/21bejing.html Archived] from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref> Dem narrow de entry list to thirteen final designs.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080619150023/http://www.bjghw.gov.cn/forNationalStadium/indexeng.asp "Presentation of Competation"]. Beijing Municipal Commission of Urban Planning. Archived from [http://www.bjghw.gov.cn/forNationalStadium/indexeng.asp the original] on 19 June 2008. Retrieved 28 August 2008.</ref> De bird ein nest model dem submit by architects Jacques Herzog den Pierre de Meuron in collaboration plus Li Xinggang of China Architecture Design and Research Group (CADG) na dem select dem as de top design by both professional panel den by broader audience during public exhibition. De selection of de design cam turn official insyd April 2003.<ref name=":1" /> Na construction of de stadium be joint venture among de original designers, project architect Stefan Marbach, artist Ai Weiwei, den group of CADG architects lead by Li Xinggang. Na dem fund ein $423 million cost by de state-owned corporate conglomerate CITIC den de Beijing State-Owned Assets Management Company.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Pasternack, Alex; Clifford A. Pearson (July 2008). [http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/archives/0807nationalstadium-1.asp "National Stadium"]. ''Architectural Record'': 92–9. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110612190219/http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfolio/archives/0807nationalstadium-1.asp Archived] from the original on 12 June 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref> === Transport === [[File:Beijing_2008_olympic_venue.svg|thumb|Map of de Olympic venues insyd Beijing. Several expressways dey encircle de center of de city, wey dey provide for quick transportation around de city den between venues.]] Make e prepare for Olympic visitors, na dem expand Beijing ein transportation infrastructure. Beijing ein airport undergo major renovation plus de addition of de fresh Terminal 3, design by architect Norman Foster.<ref>Jo Baker. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080815025557/http://www.architectureweek.com/2008/0730/design_1-1.html "Beijing Terminal 3 by Foster"]. ''Architecture Week''. Archived from [http://www.architectureweek.com/2008/0730/design_1-1.html the original] on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 16 August 2008.</ref> Within de city einself, na dem double Beijing ein subway for capacity den length insyd, plus de addition of seven lines den 80 stations to de previously four lines den 64 stations wey dey exist. Na dem include insyd dis expansion be fresh link wey dey connect to de city ein airport. Fleet of thousands of buses, minibuses, den official cars transport spectators, athletes, den officials between venues.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080512000702/http://en.beijing2008.cn/05/25/article214012505.shtml "38 public transit routes to the Olympic venues"]. ''Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games''. 22 January 2007. Archived from [http://en.beijing2008.cn/05/25/article214012505.shtml the original] on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 29 January 2007.</ref><ref>AUSmotive.com (2 August 2008). [http://www.ausmotive.com/2008/08/02/volkswagen-claims-green-medal-at-2008-olympic-games-in-beijing.html "Volkswagen claims 'Green' medal at 2008 Olympic Games"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080819044237/http://www.ausmotive.com/2008/08/02/volkswagen-claims-green-medal-at-2008-olympic-games-in-beijing.html Archived] from the original on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 2 August 2008.</ref> For effort make dem improve air quality, de city place restrictions for construction sites den gas stations top wey dem limit de use of commercial den passenger vehicles insyd Beijing.<ref>Andrew Jacobs (14 April 2008). [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/15/world/asia/15china.html "Traffic Beijing Stops Construction for Olympics"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130514130722/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/15/world/asia/15china.html Archived] from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2008.</ref> From 20 July thru 20 September, na dem place restrictions for passenger vehicle restrictions for alternative days wey dey depend for de terminal digit of de car ein license plate top. Na dem anticipate say dis measure go take 45% of Beijing ein 3.3 million cars off de streets. Na dem expect de boosted public transport network make e absorb de demand dem create by dese restrictions den de influx of visitors, wich na dem estimate for more dan 4 million additional passengers per day.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/23/2282484.htm?site=olympics/2008 "Beijing to launch Olympic 'odd-even' car ban"]. ''ABC news''. Reuters. 23 June 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080625095341/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/23/2282484.htm?site=olympics%2F2008 Archived] from the original on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 23 June 2008.</ref> === Marketing === [[File:Beijing_Birds_Nest_Olympics_track_.jpg|thumb|Insyd Beijing National Stadium during de Games. Olympic cauldron insyd background.]] Na dem know de 2008 Summer Olympics emblem as Dancing Beijing. De emblem combine traditional Chinese red seal den representation of de calligraphic character give "capital" ([[wiktionary:京|京]], sanso be de second character of Beijing ein Chinese name) plus athletic features. De open arms of de calligraphic word symbolize de invitation from China to de world make dem share for ein culture insyd. Na IOC presido Jacques Rogge rather be pleased plus de emblem, wey dey say, ''"Your new emblem immediately conveys the awesome beauty and power of China which are embodied in your heritage and your people.''"<ref>[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200308/03/eng20030803_121618.shtml "Rogge's Message for Beijing Olympics Emblem Unveiling"]. ''People's Daily Online''. 3 August 2003. [https://web.archive.org/web/20071011140945/http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200308/03/eng20030803_121618.shtml Archived] from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 19 December 2006.</ref> Na de official motto for de 2008 Olympics be "''One World, One Dream''" (同一个世界 同一个梦想).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080408065343/http://en.beijing2008.cn/75/66/article211996675.shtml "'One World One Dream' selected as the Theme Slogan for Beijing 2008 Olympic Games"]. ''Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games''. 25 December 2005. Archived from [http://en.beijing2008.cn/75/66/article211996675.shtml the original] on 8 April 2008. Retrieved 5 May 2007.</ref> E call upon de whole world make dem join insyd de Olympic spirit den build better future give humanity, wey na dem choose am from over 210,000 entries dem submit from around de world.<ref>[https://www.smh.com.au/news/Sport/New-Olympic-slogan-One-World-One-Dream/2005/06/27/1119724547278.html "New Olympic slogan: One World, One Dream"]. ''The Sydney Morning Herald''. 27 April 2005. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110623145939/http://www.smh.com.au/news/Sport/New-Olympic-slogan-One-World-One-Dream/2005/06/27/1119724547278.html Archived] from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2009.</ref> Dey follow de announcement of de motto, na dem use de phrase by international advocates of Tibetan secession. Na banners dem unfurl dey read "One World, One Dream, Free Tibet" from various structures around de globe insyd de lead up to de Beijing Olympics, such as from de San Francisco Golden Gate Bridge den de Sydney Opera House insyd Australia.<ref>Yardley, Jim (13 August 2007). [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/13/world/asia/13iht-letter.1.7095421.html "Beijing Olympics: Let the politics begin"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181204153042/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/13/world/asia/13iht-letter.1.7095421.html Archived] from the original on 4 December 2018. Retrieved 30 November 2012.</ref> Na de mascots of Beijing 2008 be de five Fuwa, each of wich represent both color of de Olympic rings den symbol of Chinese culture. Insyd 2006, de Beijing Organizing Committee for de Olympic Games release pictograms of 35 Olympic disciplines (however, for sam multidiscipline sports such as cycling, na dem release single pictogram).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080822030710/http://en.beijing2008.cn/spirit/beijing2008/graphic/pictograms/ "Pictograms of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games"]. Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games. 2006. Archived from [http://en.beijing2008.cn/spirit/beijing2008/graphic/pictograms/ the original] on 22 August 2008. Retrieved 22 August 2008.</ref><ref name=":2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080308102735/http://en.beijing2008.cn/37/34/article212033437.shtml "Pictograms of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games unveiled"]. ''Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games''. 7 August 2006. Archived from [http://en.beijing2008.cn/37/34/article212033437.shtml the original] on 8 March 2008. Retrieved 12 July 2012.</ref> Na dem name dis set of sport icons ''the beauty of seal characters'', secof each pictogram ein likeness to Chinese seal script.<ref name=":2" /> === Mascots === Na de mascots of de 2008 Summer Olympics be de Fuwa, Han Meilin (韩美林) create am. De mascots consist of Beibei, fish, Jingjing, panda, Huanhuan, Olympic flame, Yingying, Tibetan antelope, den Nini, sand martin kite. Wen dem combine dema Chinese characters, dem form 北京欢迎你, anaa "Beijing Welcomes You". Year before de Games insyd 2007, na dem release de 100-episode The Olympic Adventures of Fuwa wey dey feature de mascots. === Media coverage === Na de 2008 Games be de first make dem produce den broadcast entirely insyd high definition by de host broadcaster.<ref>Beaumont, Claudine (1 August 2008). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/3358070/The-first-high-definition-Olympics.html "The first high-definition Olympics"]. ''Telegraph''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110624120022/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/3358070/The-first-high-definition-Olympics.html Archived] from the original on 24 June 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.</ref> For comparison, American broadcaster NBC broadcast half per of de Turin [[2006 Winter Olympics]] insyd HD.<ref>Dickson, Glen (4 August 2008). [http://www.broadcastingcable.com/article/99656-Beijing_Olympics_NBC_s_Multiplatform_Push.php "Network goes to great lengths to pump Beijing Olympic Games action to myriad pipes"]. ''Broadcasting & Cable''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20091214054812/http://www.broadcastingcable.com/article/99656-Beijing_Olympics_NBC_s_Multiplatform_Push.php Archived] from the original on 14 December 2009. Retrieved 17 August 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/2008/2007-07/06/content_911825.htm "Seeing clearly: Panasonic ushers in first HDTV Game"]. ''China Daily''. 6 July 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080617110906/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/2008/2007-07/06/content_911825.htm Archived] from the original on 17 June 2008. Retrieved 24 March 2008.</ref> For dema bid for de Olympic Games insyd 2001, Beijing state to de Olympic Evaluation Commission say der go be "no restrictions on media reporting and movement of journalists up to and including the Olympic Games."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20031229012633/http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_299.pdf "Report of the IOC Evaluation Commission for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad in 2008"] (PDF). International Olympic Committee. Archived from [http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_299.pdf the original] (PDF) on 29 December 2003. Retrieved 10 June 2009.</ref> However, some media outlets claim say organizers ultimately fail make dem live up to dis commitment.<ref>Stelter, Brian (21 July 2008). [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/21/sports/olympics/21nbc.html "Networks Fight Shorter Olympic Leash"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110813155823/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/21/sports/olympics/21nbc.html Archived] from the original on 13 August 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2008.</ref> According to Nielsen Media Research, 4.7 billion viewers worldwide tune insyd sam of de television coverage, one-fifth larger dan de 3.9 billion wey watch de 2004 Olympic Games insyd Athens. American broadcaster NBC produce two hours per of online streaming video give de 2006 Winter Games buh e produce approximately 2,200 hours of coverage give de 2008 Summer Games. CNN report say, for de first time, "live online video rights in some markets for the Olympics have been separately negotiated, not part of the overall 'broadcast rights.'" Na dem say de fresh media of de digital economy dey grow "nine times faster than the rest of the advertising market."<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2008/TECH/07/09/oly.media/index.html "Olympics enter the '2.0' era"]. ''CNN''. 10 July 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080908023843/http://www3.cnn.com/2008/TECH/07/09/oly.media/index.html Archived] from the original on 8 September 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2008.</ref> [[File:2008_Summer_Olympics_Opening_Ceremony_11.jpg|thumb|US Presido George W. Bush for de 2008 Summer Olympics]] De international European Broadcasting Union (EBU) provide live coverage den highlights of all arenas per give certain territories for dema website top, Eurovisionsports.tv.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080822214328/http://www.eurovisionsports.tv/olympics/geoerror/geoerror.html "Beijing LIVE"]. Archived from [http://www.eurovisionsports.tv/olympics/geoerror/geoerror.html the original] on 22 August 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2008.</ref> Chaw national broadcasters likewise restrict de viewing of online events to dema domestic audiences.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics/cycling/7552544.stm "Delighted Cooke gets gold medal"]. ''BBC News''. 10 August 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080815105838/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics/cycling/7552544.stm Archived] from the original on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2008.</ref> De General National Copyright Administration of China announce say "individual (''sic'') and websites will face fines as high as 100,000 yuan for uploading recordings of Olympic Games video to the internet",<ref>Wallace, Lydia. [http://www.danwei.org/2008_beijing_olympic_games/china_copywrites_the_olympics.php "100,000 yuan fine for uploading Olympic videos?"]. Danwei.org. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110611063147/http://www.danwei.org/2008_beijing_olympic_games/china_copywrites_the_olympics.php Archived] from the original on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 29 November 2010.</ref> part of extensive campaign make dem protect de pertinent intellectual property rights.<ref>Robertson, Campbell. [http://olympics.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/06/16/for-olympics-china-ramps-up-copyright-infringement-campaign/ "For Olympics, China Ramps Up Copyright Infringement Campaign – Rings Blog"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080623054529/http://olympics.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/06/16/for-olympics-china-ramps-up-copyright-infringement-campaign/ Archived] from the original on 23 June 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2011.</ref><ref><bdi>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110821182530/http://news.xinhuanet.com/newmedia/2008-06/13/content_8359170.htm 我国启动打击网络侵权盗版专项行动 为期四个月]</bdi> (insyd Chinese). News.xinhuanet.com. Archived from [http://news.xinhuanet.com/newmedia/2008-06/13/content_8359170.htm the original] on 21 August 2011. Retrieved 29 November 2010.</ref> De Olympic Committee sanso set up separate YouTube channel for Beijing 2008.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/beijing2008#p/a/u/0/uuU-AXa3tYo "beijing2008"]. ''YouTube''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130630105117/http://www.youtube.com/beijing2008#p/a/u/0/uuU-AXa3tYo Archived] from the original on 30 June 2013. Retrieved 12 October 2015.</ref> === Theme song === Na de theme song of de 2008 Summer Olympics be "You and Me", wich na ebe compose by Chen Qigang, de musical director of de opening ceremony. Na dem perform am during de opening ceremony by Chinese singer Liu Huan den British singer Sarah Brightman.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304221534/http://2008.163.com/08/0808/21/4IRR3I6U00742QDT.html "刘欢莎拉布莱曼演唱奥运会主题歌《我和你》"]. ''The 2008 Olympic Report''. 8 August 2008. Archived from [http://2008.163.com/08/0808/21/4IRR3I6U00742QDT.html the original] on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 9 September 2024.</ref><ref>[https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1044498/beijing-ceremony-introduces-olympic-theme-song "Beijing Ceremony Introduces Olympic Theme Song"]. 8 August 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20151208234251/http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1044498/beijing-ceremony-introduces-olympic-theme-song Archived] from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2015 &#x2013; via Billboard.</ref> Na de theme song originally for be song dem bell "So much love, so far away (Tanto amor, tan lejos)" Cuban singer-songwriter Jon Secada den Peruvian singer-songwriter Gian Marco wrep am under production from Cuban producer Emilio Estefan Jr. from EMI.<ref>[https://www.newspapers.com/image/670743480/?terms=%22gian%20marco%22&match=1 "El Sonido De Miami"]. ''El Nuevo Herald''. 7 August 2001. p.&nbsp;29.</ref> == Torch relay == [[File:Colección del Museo Olímpico - 125.jpg|thumb|2008 Olympic Torch insyd Vilnius, Lithuania]] Na de design of de 2008 Olympic Torch dey base for traditional scrolls top wey dem use traditional Chinese design dem know as de "Propitious Clouds" (祥云). Na dem design de torch make e remain lit insyd 65 km/h (40 mph) winds, den insyd rain of up to 50 mm (2 in) per hour.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130514013509/http://torchrelay.beijing2008.cn/en/news/headlines/image07/s214233067/n214233090.shtml "The Image and Look – The Torch"]. ''Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games''. 16 January 2008. Archived from [http://torchrelay.beijing2008.cn/en/news/headlines/image07/s214233067/n214233090.shtml the original] on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 24 October 2014.</ref> Na dem meet de relay, plus de theme "Journey of Harmony", plus protests den demonstrations by pro-Tibet supporters thru out ein journey. E last 130 days wey dem carry de torch 137,000 km (85,000 mi)—de longest distance of any Olympic torch relay since de tradition begin for de 1936 Berlin Games.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/uk/news/olympic_news/full_story_uk.asp?id=2147 "Beijing 2008: BOCOG Announces Olympic Torch Relay Route"]. International Olympic Committee. 26 April 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070429032528/http://www.olympic.org/uk/news/olympic_news/full_story_uk.asp?id=2147 Archived] from the original on 29 April 2007. Retrieved 26 April 2007.</ref><ref>Bowley, Graham; Sullivan, John (9 April 2008). [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/09/world/09torch.html "Officials Expect Olympic Torch to Continue on Route"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181004104046/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/09/world/09torch.html Archived] from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2011.</ref> Na dem describe de torch relay as "public relations disaster" give China by ''USA Today'',<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-04-29-torch-vietnam_N.htm "Vietnamese cheer torch, last int'l stop"]. ''USA Today''. 29 April 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090707031454/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-04-29-torch-vietnam_N.htm Archived] from the original on 7 July 2009. Retrieved 20 June 2009.</ref> plus protests against China ein human rights record, particularly dem focus for Tibet top. De IOC subsequently bar future Olympics organizers from make dem stage international torch relays.<ref>Zinser, Lynn (27 March 2009). [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/28/sports/othersports/28torch.html "I.O.C. Bars International Torch Relays"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130514135658/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/28/sports/othersports/28torch.html Archived] from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2009.</ref> De relay begin 24 March 2008, insyd Olympia, Greece. From der, e travel across Greece to Panathinaiko Stadium insyd Athens, den then to Beijing, wey e arrive for 31 March. From Beijing, de torch follow route wey dey pass thru every continent except Antarctica. De torch visit cities for de Silk Road top, wey dey symbolize ancient links between China den de rest of de world. Na dem select total of 21,880 torchbearers from around de world by various organizations den entities.<ref name=":3">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080308103032/http://torchrelay.beijing2008.cn/en/news/headlines/n214042288.shtml "Beijing 2008 Olympic Torch Relay Planned Route and Torch Design unveiled"]. ''Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games''. 26 April 2007. Archived from [http://torchrelay.beijing2008.cn/en/news/headlines/n214042288.shtml the original] on 8 March 2008. Retrieved 26 April 2007.</ref> Na de international portion of de relay be problematic. De month-long world tour encounter wide-scale anti-Chinese protests. After trouble insyd London wey dey involve attempts by protesters make dem put out de flame, na dem extinguish de torch insyd Paris de day wey dey follow.<ref>Samuel, Henry (7 April 2008). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1584227/Olympic-torch-extinguished-three-times.html "Olympic torch extinguished three times"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090318064100/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1584227/Olympic-torch-extinguished-three-times.html Archived] from the original on 18 March 2009. Retrieved 20 June 2009.</ref> Na dem alter de American leg insyd San Francisco for 9 April widout prior warning make dem avoid such disturbances, although na der still be demonstrations along de original route.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7339380.stm "Confusion strikes US torch relay"]. ''BBC News''. 9 April 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110712212724/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7339380.stm Archived] from the original on 12 July 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.</ref> Na dem delay den simplify de relay after de 2008 Sichuan earthquake hit western China.<ref>[https://www.espn.com/olympics/news/story?id=3445844 "Organizers not saying why torch's arrival in Tibet delayed"]. ESPN. 16 June 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20121106194508/http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/news/story?id=3445844 Archived] from the original on 6 November 2012. Retrieved 20 June 2009.</ref> [[File:Beijing_2008_Torch_Relay_Route.png|left|thumb|Route of de 2008 Olympic Torch Relay]] Na dem carry de flame to de top of Mount Everest<ref name=":3" /> for 108 km (67 mi) long "highway" wey dey scale de Tibetan side of de mountain, dem build especially give de relay. De $19.7 million blacktop project span from Tingri County of Xigazê Prefecture to de Everest Base Camp.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080111221824/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/007200706200340.htm "China to build highway on Mt Everest for 2008 Olympics"]. ''The Hindu''. India. 20 June 2007. Archived from [http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/007200706200340.htm the original] on 11 January 2008. Retrieved 25 June 2007.</ref> Insyd March 2008, China ban mountaineers from make dem dey climb ein side of Mount Everest, den later dem persuade de Nepalese government make dem close dema side as well, officially dey cite environmental concerns.<ref>McCarthy, Michael; Geldard, Jack (17 March 2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20080405092649/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/climbers-banned-from-everest-as-china-seeks-to-stop-protests-on-summit-796782.html "Climbers banned from Everest as China seeks to stop protests on summit"]. ''The Independent''. London. Archived from [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/climbers-banned-from-everest-as-china-seeks-to-stop-protests-on-summit-796782.html the original] on 5 April 2008. Retrieved 23 March 2008.</ref> E sanso reflect concerns by de Chinese government sat Tibet activists fi try make dem disrupt ein plans make dem carry de Olympic torch up de world ein tallest peak.<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/04/20/nepal.torch.oly/index.html "Nepal: Everest pro-Tibet protesters may be shot"]. ''CNN''. 20 April 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100307231244/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/04/20/nepal.torch.oly/index.html Archived] from the original on 7 March 2010. Retrieved 20 June 2009.</ref> De route dem originally propose na e go fi take de torch thru Taipei after dem lef Vietnam den before dem head for Hong Kong. However, de government of Taiwan (then lead by de independence-leaning Democratic Progressive Party) object to dis proposal, wey dem claim say dis route go make de portion of de relay insyd Taiwan make e appear to be part of de torch ein domestic journey thru China, rather dan a leg for de international route top.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080411165900/http://taiwanjournal.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=24170&CtNode=122 "Taiwan rejects 'domestic' Olympic torch route"]. ''Taiwan Journal''. 4 May 2007. Archived from [http://taiwanjournal.nat.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=24170&CtNode=122 the original] on 11 April 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2007.</ref> Dis dispute, as well as Chinese dey demand say make dem ban de flag den de national anthem of de Republic of China along de route wey lead de government of Taiwan make e reject de proposal say e be part of de relay route. De two sides of de Taiwan Strait subsequently blame each oda for injecting politics into de event.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7005984.stm "Olympic torch will bypass Taiwan"]. ''BBC News''. 21 September 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090930022455/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7005984.stm Archived] from the original on 30 September 2009. Retrieved 20 June 2009.</ref> == De Games == === National Olympic Committees wey dey participate === [[File:2008 Summer Olympic games countries.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.8|Nations wey dey participate<br /><span style="color:#1e90ff;">Blue</span> = Dey participate for de first time. <span style="color:#00ff7f;">Green</span> = Dem previously participate. Yellow square be host city (Beijing)]] [[File:2008 Summer olympics team numbers.gif|thumb|center|upright=2.8|Team sizes]] All buh one of de 205 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) dem recognize wey exist as of 2008 participate insyd de 2008 Summer Olympics, de exception be Brunei.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/index_uk.asp "National Olympic Committees"]. International Olympic Committee. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181225174713/https://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/index_uk.asp%20 Archived] from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2008.</ref> Three countries participate insyd de Olympic Games for dema first time: de Marshall Islands, Montenegro den Tuvalu.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/past/index_uk.asp?OLGT=1&OLGY=2008 "Beijing 2008"]. ''Olympic Games''. International Olympic Committee. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090526073745/http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/past/index_uk.asp?OLGT=1&OLGY=2008 Archived] from the original on 26 May 2009. Retrieved 6 June 2009.</ref> While e no be full member dem recognize by de IOC den thus dem no allow make e compete formally insyd de Olympics, de Macau Sports and Olympic Committee send delegation make dem participate insyd de Wushu Tournament Beijing 2008, ebe de unrecognized National Olympic Committee per wey na e take part insyd de 2008 Summer Olympics. E sanso coordinate efforts plus de Chinese Olympic Committee make e organize de torch relay thru Macau. De Marshall Islands den Tuvalu gain National Olympic Committee status insyd 2006 den 2007 respectively, wey na 2008 be de first Games for wich dem be eligible make dem participate.<ref name="Tuvalu">[https://web.archive.org/web/20051018032511/http://www.oceaniasport.com/tuvalu/ "Robert Meets IOC President"]. ONOC. 2 April 2005. Archived from [http://www.oceaniasport.com/tuvalu/ the original] on 18 October 2005. Retrieved 17 December 2006.</ref><ref name="New NOCs accepted">[https://web.archive.org/web/20071112130845/http://www.olympic.org/uk/news/olympic_news/full_story_uk.asp?id=2237 "Two new National Olympic Committees on board!"]. International Olympic Committee. 6 July 2007. Archived from [http://www.olympic.org/uk/news/olympic_news/full_story_uk.asp?id=2237 the original] on 12 November 2007. Retrieved 8 July 2007.</ref> De states of Serbia den Montenegro, wich participate for de 2004 Games jointly as Serbia and Montenegro, compete separately for de first time since Serbia last participate insyd 1912. Montenegro make ein debut appearance, as na dem accept de Montenegrin Olympic Committee as fresh National Olympic Committee insyd 2007.<ref name="New NOCs accepted" /> Neighboring Kosovo, however, no participate. After de declaration of independence insyd Kosovo, de IOC specify requirements wey Kosovo dey hia make dem meet before dem go recognize am by de IOC; most notably, e for be recognize as independent by de United Nations.<ref>[https://abcnews.go.com/Sports/wireStory?id=4306795 "IOC: Kosovo Olympic Team 'Unlikely'"]. Associated Press. 18 February 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090205124500/https://abcnews.go.com/Sports/wireStory?id=4306795 Archived] from the original on 5 February 2009. Retrieved 20 February 2008.</ref><ref name="USOC Delegation">[https://web.archive.org/web/20090503065123/http://teamusa.org/news/article/2744 "2008 United States Olympic Team Entered Into XXVIV Olympic Games in Beijing, China"]. United States Olympic Committee. 24 July 2008. Archived from [http://teamusa.org/news/article/2744 the original] on 3 May 2009. Retrieved 15 June 2009.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080907021534/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/25/content_8767561.htm "Host China announces biggest-ever Olympic team of 639 athletes"]. Xinhua News. 25 July 2008. Archived from [http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/25/content_8767561.htm the original] on 7 September 2008. Retrieved 28 November 2012.</ref> However, dem since recognize am by de IOC insyd 2014 widout e fulfil dese criteria wey e make ein debut insyd de 2016 games.<ref>[https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-grants-provisional-recognition-to-kosovo-olympic-committee "IOC grants provisional recognition to Kosovo Olympic Committee"]. 13 July 2021.</ref> More dan 100 sovereigns, heads of state den heads of government as well as 170 Ministers of Sport attend de Beijing Olympic Games.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/uk/news/olympic_news/full_story_uk.asp?id=2698 "IOC President to meet with world leaders"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080907020146/http://www.olympic.org/uk/news/olympic_news/full_story_uk.asp?id=2698 Archived] from the original on 7 September 2008. Retrieved 9 September 2009.</ref> {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" !National Olympic Committees wey dey participate |- | * Afghanistan (4 athletes) * Albania (11) * [[Algeria]] (56) * American Samoa (4) * Andorra (5) * [[Angola]] (32) * Antigua and Barbuda (5) * Argentina (132) * Armenia (25) * Aruba (2) * Australia (432) * Austria (70) * Azerbaijan (44) * Bahamas (25) * Bahrain (14) * Bangladesh (5) * Barbados (8) * Belarus (177) * Belgium (94) * Belize (4) * [[Benin]] (5) * Bermuda (6) * Bhutan (2) * Bolivia (7) * Bosnia and Herzegovina (5) * [[Botswana]] (11) * Brazil (268) * British Virgin Islands (2) * Bulgaria (70) * [[Burkina Faso]] (6) * [[Burundi]] (3) * Cambodia (4) * [[Cameroon]] (32) * [[Canada]] (332) * [[Cape Verde]] (2) * Cayman Islands (4) * [[Central African Republic]] (3) * [[Chad]] (2) * Chile (26) * China (599) '''(host)''' * Colombia (67) * Comoros (3) * [[Republic of the Congo]] (5) * [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (5) * Cook Islands (4) * Costa Rica (8) * Croatia (99) * Cuba (158) * Cyprus (17) * Czech Republic (134) * Denmark (84) * [[Djibouti]] (2) * Dominica (2) * Dominican Republic (24) * Ecuador (25) * [[Egypt]] (100) * El Salvador (11) * Equatorial Guinea (3) * [[Eritrea]] (10) * Estonia (47) * [[Ethiopia]] (27) * Fiji (6) * Finland (57) * France (309) * [[Gabon]] (4) * [[The Gambia]] (3) * Georgia (35) * Germany (420) * [[Ghana]] (9) * Great Britain (304) * Greece (152) * Grenada (9) * Guam (6) * Guatemala (12) * [[Guinea]] (5) * [[Guinea-Bissau]] (3) * Guyana (4) * Haiti (7) * Honduras (25) * Hong Kong (34) * Hungary (171) * Iceland (27) * India (53) * Indonesia (24) * Iran (54) * Iraq (4) * Ireland (55) * Israel (43) * Italy (333) * [[Ivory Coast]] (21) * Jamaica (50) * Japan (332) * Jordan (7) * Kazakhstan (130) * [[Kenya]] (46) * Kiribati (2) * North Korea (58) * South Korea (265) * Kuwait (8) * Kyrgyzstan (20) * Laos (4) * Latvia (47) * Lebanon (6) * Lesotho (5) * [[Liberia]] (3) * [[Libya]] (6) * Liechtenstein (2) * Lithuania (71) * Luxembourg (13) * Macedonia (7) * [[Madagascar]] (6) * [[Malawi]] (4) * Malaysia (32) * Maldives (4) * [[Mali]] (17) * Malta (6) * Marshall Islands (5) * [[Mauritania]] (2) * [[Mauritius]] (11) * Mexico (83) * Federated States of Micronesia (5) * Moldova (29) * Monaco (5) * Mongolia (28) * Montenegro (19) * [[Morocco]] (47) * [[Mozambique]] (4) * Myanmar (6) * [[Namibia]] (10) * Nauru (1) * Nepal (8) * Netherlands (237) * Netherlands Antilles (3) * New Zealand (178) * Nicaragua (6) * [[Niger]] (4) * [[Nigeria]] (74) * Norway (84) * Oman (4) * Pakistan (21) * Palau (5) * Palestine (4) * Panama (5) * Papua New Guinea (7) * Paraguay (7) * Peru (13) * Philippines (15) * Poland (257) * Portugal (77) * Puerto Rico (22) * Qatar (20) * Romania (101) * Russia (454) * [[Rwanda]] (4) * Saint Kitts and Nevis (4) * Saint Lucia (4) * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (2) * Samoa (6) * San Marino (4) * São Tomé and Príncipe (3) * Saudi Arabia (14) * [[Senegal]] (15) * Serbia (87) * [[Seychelles]] (9) * [[Sierra Leone]] (3) * Singapore (25) * Slovakia (57) * Slovenia (61) * Solomon Islands (3) * [[Somalia]] (2) * [[South Africa]] (134) * Spain (283) * Sri Lanka (8) * [[Sudan]] (9) * Suriname (4) * [[Eswatini|Swaziland]] (4) * Sweden (123) * Switzerland (83) * Syria (7) * Chinese Taipei (79) * Tajikistan (15) * [[Tanzania]] (9) * Thailand (47) * East Timor (1) * [[Togo]] (4) * Tonga (3) * Trinidad and Tobago (28) * [[Tunisia]] (26) * Turkey (67) * Turkmenistan (10) * Tuvalu (3) * [[Uganda]] (11) * Ukraine (243) * United Arab Emirates (8) * United States (588) * Uruguay (12) * Uzbekistan (56) * Vanuatu (3) * Venezuela (108) * Vietnam (13) * Virgin Islands (7) * Yemen (5) * [[Zambia]] (8) * [[Zimbabwe]] (13) |} === Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" !IOC Letter Code !Country !Athletes |- |CHN |China |599 |- |USA |United States |588 |- |RUS |Russia |467 |- |GER |Germany |463 |- |AUS |Australia |433 |- |ITA |Italy |333 |- |CAN |Canada |332 |- |JPN |Japan |332 |- |FRA |France |323 |- |GBR |Great Britain |312 |- |ESP |Spain |283 |- |BRA |Brazil |268 |- |KOR |South Korea |265 |- |POL |Poland |257 |- |UKR |Ukraine |243 |- |NED |Netherlands |237 |- |NZL |New Zealand |178 |- |BLR |Belarus |177 |- |HUN |Hungary |171 |- |CUB |Cuba |158 |- |GRE |Greece |152 |- |CZE |Czech Republic |134 |- |RSA |South Africa |134 |- |ARG |Argentina |132 |- |KAZ |Kazakhstan |130 |- |SWE |Sweden |123 |- |VEN |Venezuela |108 |- |ROU |Romania |101 |- |EGY |Egypt |100 |- |CRO |Croatia |99 |- |BEL |Belgium |94 |- |SRB |Serbia |87 |- |DEN |Denmark |84 |- |NOR |Norway |84 |- |MEX |Mexico |83 |- |SUI |Switzerland |83 |- |TPE |Chinese Taipei |79 |- |POR |Portugal |77 |- |NGR |Nigeria |74 |- |LTU |Lithuania |71 |- |AUT |Austria |70 |- |BUL |Bulgaria |70 |- |COL |Colombia |67 |- |TUR |Turkey |67 |- |SLO |Slovenia |61 |- |PRK |North Korea |58 |- |FIN |Finland |57 |- |SVK |Slovakia |57 |- |ALG |Algeria |56 |- |UZB |Uzbekistan |56 |- |IRL |Ireland |55 |- |IRI |Iran |54 |- |IND |India |53 |- |JAM |Jamaica |50 |- |EST |Estonia |47 |- |LAT |Latvia |47 |- |MAR |Morocco |47 |- |THA |Thailand |47 |- |KEN |Kenya |46 |- |AZE |Azerbaijan |44 |- |ISR |Israel |43 |- |GEO |Georgia |35 |- |HKG |Hong Kong |34 |- |ANG |Angola |32 |- |CMR |Cameroon |32 |- |MAS |Malaysia |32 |- |MDA |Moldova |29 |- |MGL |Mongolia |28 |- |TRI |Trinidad and Tobago |28 |- |ETH |Ethiopia |27 |- |ISL |Iceland |27 |- |CHI |Chile |26 |- |TUN |Tunisia |26 |- |ARM |Armenia |25 |- |BAH |Bahamas |25 |- |ECU |Ecuador |25 |- |HON |Honduras |25 |- |SIN |Singapore |25 |- |DOM |Dominican Republic |24 |- |INA |Indonesia |24 |- |PUR |Puerto Rico |22 |- |CIV |Ivory Coast |21 |- |PAK |Pakistan |21 |- |KGZ |Kyrgyzstan |20 |- |QAT |Qatar |20 |- |MNE |Montenegro |19 |- |CYP |Cyprus |17 |- |MLI |Mali |17 |- |PHI |Philippines |15 |- |SEN |Senegal |15 |- |TJK |Tajikistan |15 |- |BRN |Bahrain |14 |- |KSA |Saudi Arabia |14 |- |LUX |Luxembourg |13 |- |PER |Peru |13 |- |VIE |Vietnam |13 |- |ZIM |Zimbabwe |13 |- |GUA |Guatemala |12 |- |URU |Uruguay |12 |- |ALB |Albania |11 |- |BOT |Botswana |11 |- |ESA |El Salvador |11 |- |MRI |Mauritius |11 |- |UGA |Uganda |11 |- |ERI |Eritrea |10 |- |NAM |Namibia |10 |- |TKM |Turkmenistan |10 |- |GHA |Ghana |9 |- |GRN |Grenada |9 |- |SEY |Seychelles |9 |- |SUD |Sudan |9 |- |TAN |Tanzania |9 |- |BAR |Barbados |8 |- |CRC |Costa Rica |8 |- |KUW |Kuwait |8 |- |NEP |Nepal |8 |- |SRI |Sri Lanka |8 |- |UAE |United Arab Emirates |8 |- |ZAM |Zambia |8 |- |BOL |Bolivia |7 |- |HAI |Haiti |7 |- |JOR |Jordan |7 |- |MKD |Macedonia |7 |- |PNG |Papua New Guinea |7 |- |PAR |Paraguay |7 |- |SYR |Syria |7 |- |ISV |Virgin Islands |7 |- |BER |Bermuda |6 |- |BUR |Burkina Faso |6 |- |FIJ |Fiji |6 |- |GUM |Guam |6 |- |LIB |Lebanon |6 |- |LBA |Libya |6 |- |MAD |Madagascar |6 |- |MLT |Malta |6 |- |MYA |Myanmar |6 |- |NCA |Nicaragua |6 |- |SAM |Samoa |6 |- |AND |Andorra |5 |- |ANT |Antigua and Barbuda |5 |- |BAN |Bangladesh |5 |- |BEN |Benin |5 |- |BIH |Bosnia and Herzegovina |5 |- |CGO |Republic of the Congo |5 |- |COD |Democratic Republic of the Congo |5 |- |GUI |Guinea |5 |- |LES |Lesotho |5 |- |MHL |Marshall Islands |5 |- |FSM |Federated States of Micronesia |5 |- |MON |Monaco |5 |- |PLW |Palau |5 |- |PAN |Panama |5 |- |YEM |Yemen |5 |- |AFG |Afghanistan |4 |- |ASA |American Samoa |4 |- |BIZ |Belize |4 |- |CAM |Cambodia |4 |- |CAY |Cayman Islands |4 |- |COK |Cook Islands |4 |- |GAB |Gabon |4 |- |GUY |Guyana |4 |- |IRQ |Iraq |4 |- |LAO |Laos |4 |- |MAW |Malawi |4 |- |MDV |Maldives |4 |- |MOZ |Mozambique |4 |- |NIG |Niger |4 |- |OMA |Oman |4 |- |PLE |Palestine |4 |- |RWA |Rwanda |4 |- |SKN |Saint Kitts and Nevis |4 |- |LCA |Saint Lucia |4 |- |SMR |San Marino |4 |- |SUR |Suriname |4 |- |SWZ |Swaziland |4 |- |TOG |Togo |4 |- |BDI |Burundi |3 |- |CAF |Central African Republic |3 |- |COM |Comoros |3 |- |GEQ |Equatorial Guinea |3 |- |GAM |The Gambia |3 |- |GBS |Guinea-Bissau |3 |- |LBR |Liberia |3 |- |AHO |Netherlands Antilles |3 |- |STP |São Tomé and Príncipe |3 |- |SLE |Sierra Leone |3 |- |SOL |Solomon Islands |3 |- |TGA |Tonga |3 |- |TUV |Tuvalu |3 |- |VAN |Vanuatu |3 |- |ARU |Aruba |2 |- |BHU |Bhutan |2 |- |IVB |British Virgin Islands |2 |- |CPV |Cape Verde |2 |- |CHA |Chad |2 |- |DJI |Djibouti |2 |- |DMA |Dominica |2 |- |KIR |Kiribati |2 |- |LIE |Liechtenstein |2 |- |MTN |Mauritania |2 |- |VIN |Saint Vincent and the Grenadines |2 |- |SOM |Somalia |2 |- |NRU |Nauru |1 |- |TLS |East Timor |1 |} === Sports === {| class="wikitable" !2008 Summer Olympics Sports Programme |- | {| class="wikitable" | * Aquatics ** Diving <small>(8)</small> ** Swimming <small>(34)</small> ** Synchronized swimming <small>(2)</small> ** Water polo <small>(2)</small> * Archery <small>(4)</small> * Athletics <small>(47)</small> * Badminton <small>(5)</small> * Baseball <small>(1)</small> * Basketball <small>(2)</small> * Boxing <small>(11)</small> | * Canoeing ** Slalom <small>(4)</small> ** Sprint <small>(12)</small> * Cycling ** BMX <small>(2)</small> ** Road <small>(4)</small> ** Track <small>(10)</small> ** Mountain bike <small>(2)</small> * Equestrian ** Dressage <small>(2)</small> ** Eventing <small>(2)</small> ** Jumping <small>(2)</small> | * Fencing <small>(10)</small> * Field hockey <small>(2)</small> * Football <small>(2)</small> * Gymnastics ** Artistic <small>(14)</small> ** Rhythmic <small>(2)</small> ** Trampoline <small>(2)</small> * Handball <small>(2)</small> * Judo <small>(14)</small> * Modern pentathlon <small>(2)</small> * Rowing <small>(14)</small> * Sailing <small>(11)</small> | * Shooting <small>(15)</small> * Softball <small>(1)</small> * Table tennis <small>(4)</small> * Taekwondo <small>(8)</small> * Tennis <small>(4)</small> * Triathlon <small>(2)</small> * Volleyball ** Beach volleyball <small>(2)</small> ** Volleyball <small>(2)</small> * Weightlifting <small>(15)</small> * Wrestling ** Freestyle <small>(11)</small> ** Greco-Roman <small>(7)</small> |} |} === '''Calendar''' === :''All dates be Beijing Time (UTC+8)'' {| class="wikitable" |'''OC''' |Opening ceremony |● |Event competitions |'''1''' |Gold medal events |'''EG''' |Exhibition gala |'''CC''' |Closing ceremony |} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="2" |August 2008 !6th Wed !7th Thu !8th Fri !9th Sat !10th Sun !11th Mon !12th Tue !13th Wed !14th Thu !15th Fri !16th Sat !17th Sun !18th Mon !19th Tue !20th Wed !21st Thu !22nd Fri !23rd Sat !24th Sun !Events |- | colspan="2" |Ceremonies | | |'''OC''' | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |'''CC''' |— |- | rowspan="5" |Aquatics |Diving | | | | |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''1''' | |● |● |'''1''' |● |'''1''' |● |'''1''' |● |'''1''' | | rowspan="5" |'''46''' |- |Marathon swimming | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |'''1''' |'''1''' | | | |- |Swimming | | | |● |'''4''' |'''4''' |'''4''' |'''4''' |'''4''' |'''4''' |'''4''' |'''4''' | | | | | | | |- |Synchronized swimming | | | | | | | | | | | | |● |● |'''1''' | |● |'''1''' | |- |Water polo | | | | |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |'''1''' |● | |'''1''' |- | colspan="2" |Archery | | | |● |'''1''' |'''1''' |● |● |'''1''' |'''1''' | | | | | | | | | |'''4''' |- | colspan="2" |Athletics | | | | | | | | | |'''2''' |'''4''' |'''6''' |'''6''' |'''5''' |'''3''' |'''6''' |'''7''' |'''7''' |'''1''' |'''47''' |- | colspan="2" |Badminton | | | |● |● |● |● |● |● |'''1''' |'''2''' |'''2''' | | | | | | | |'''5''' |- | rowspan="3" |Baseball/Softball |- |Baseball | | | | | | | |● |● |● |● | |● |● |● | |● |'''1''' | | rowspan="2" |'''2''' |- |Softball | | | | | | |● |● |● |● |● |● |● | |● |'''1''' | | | |- | colspan="2" |Basketball | | | |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''2''' |- | colspan="2" |Boxing | | | |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● | |● |'''4''' |'''6''' |'''11''' |- | rowspan="2" |Canoeing |Slalom | | | | | |● |'''2''' |● |● |'''2''' | | | | | | | | | | rowspan="2" |'''16''' |- |Sprint | | | | | | | | | | | | |● |● |● |● |'''6''' |'''6''' | |- | rowspan="4" |Cycling |Road cycling | | | |'''1''' |'''1''' | | |'''2''' | | | | | | | | | | | | rowspan="4" |'''18''' |- |Track cycling | | | | | | | | | |'''1''' |'''3''' |'''1''' |'''2''' |'''3''' | | | | | |- |BMX | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |● | |'''2''' | | |- |Mountain biking | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |'''2''' | |- | colspan="2" |Equestrian | | | |● |● |● |'''2''' |● |'''1''' |● |● |● |'''1''' |'''1''' | |'''1''' | | | |'''6''' |- | colspan="2" |Fencing | | | |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''2''' |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''1''' | | | | | | | |'''10''' |- | colspan="2" |Field hockey | | | | |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |'''1''' |'''1''' | |'''2''' |- | colspan="2" |Football |● |● | |● |● | |● |● | |● |● | |● |● | |'''1''' |● |'''1''' | |'''2''' |- | rowspan="3" |Gymnastics |Artistic | | | |● |● | |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''1''' |● |'''4''' |'''3''' |'''3''' |'''EG''' | | | | | rowspan="3" |'''18''' |- |Rhythmic | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |● |● |'''1''' |'''1''' |- |Trampolining | | | | | | | | | | |● | |'''1''' |'''1''' | | | | | |- | colspan="2" |Handball | | | |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''2''' |- | colspan="2" |Judo | | | |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' | | | | | | | | | |'''14''' |- | colspan="2" |Modern pentathlon | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |'''1''' |'''1''' | | |'''2''' |- | colspan="2" |Rowing | | | |● |● |● |● |● | |● |'''7''' |'''7''' | | | | | | | |'''14''' |- | colspan="2" |Sailing | | | |● |● |● |● |● | |● |● |'''3''' |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' | | | |'''11''' |- | colspan="2" |Shooting | | | |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''1''' |'''2''' |'''1''' |'''2''' |'''1''' | | | | | | | |'''15''' |- | colspan="2" |Table tennis | | | | | | | |● |● |● |● |'''1''' |'''1''' |● |● |● |'''1''' |'''1''' | |'''4''' |- | colspan="2" |Taekwondo | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' | |'''8''' |- | colspan="2" |Tennis | | | | |● |● |● |● |● |● |'''1''' |'''3''' | | | | | | | |'''4''' |- | colspan="2" |Triathlon | | | | | | | | | | | | |'''1''' |'''1''' | | | | | |'''2''' |- | rowspan="2" |Volleyball |Beach volleyball | | | |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |'''1''' |'''1''' | | | rowspan="2" |'''4''' |- |Indoor volleyball | | | |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |● |'''1''' |'''1''' |- | colspan="2" |Weightlifting | | | |'''1''' |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' | |'''2''' |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''1''' |'''1''' | | | | | |'''15''' |- | colspan="2" |Wrestling | | | | | | |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''3''' | |'''2''' |'''2''' | |'''2''' |'''2''' |'''2''' | | | |'''18''' |- ! colspan="2" |Daily medal events ! ! ! !7 !14 !13 !19 !17 !15 !18 !27 !37 !18 !20 !11 !21 !21 !32 !12 ! rowspan="2" |302 |- ! colspan="2" |Cumulative total ! ! ! !7 !21 !34 !53 !70 !85 !103 !130 !167 !185 !205 !216 !237 !258 !290 !302 |- ! colspan="2" |August 2008 !6th Wed !7th Thu !8th Fri !9th Sat !10th Sun !11th Mon !12th Tue !13th Wed !14th Thu !15th Fri !16th Sat !17th Sun !18th Mon !19th Tue !20th Wed !21st Thu !22nd Fri !23rd Sat !24th Sun !Events |} == Medal table == Of de 204 nations wey participate insyd de 2008 Games, 87 earn medals wey 54 of those win at least one gold medal, both of dese figures dey set fresh records give Olympic Games.<ref name="crary">Crary, David (24 August 2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110714161128/http://www.2008.nbcolympics.com/newscenter/news/newsid%3D254694.html "The final count: China's gold rush"]. ''NBCOlympics.com''. NBC. Associated Press. Archived from [http://www.2008.nbcolympics.com/newscenter/news/newsid=254694.html the original] on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2009.</ref><ref>Mochlinski, Kaz (25 August 2008). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/2621181/China-confirm-their-place-as-worlds-leading-superpower-Olympics.html "China confirm place as leading superpower after topping Olympic Games medal table"]. Telegraph Media Group. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180715051955/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/2621181/China-confirm-their-place-as-worlds-leading-superpower-Olympics.html Archived] from the original on 15 July 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2018.</ref> Na der be 117 countries wey dey participate wey no win any medals. Athletes wey komot China win de highest number of gold medals of any nation for dese Games, plus 48, thus dey make China de seventh nation make e rank top insyd de medal table insyd de history of de modern Olympics, along plus de United States (fifteen times), France (insyd 1900), Great Britain (insyd 1908), Germany (insyd 1936), de Soviet Union (six times), den de Unified Team (insyd 1992).<ref name="crary" /> De United States team win de most medals overall, plus 112. Afghanistan,<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics/taekwondo/7572409.stm "Afghans win first Olympic medal"]. BBC. 5 June 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080821064824/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics/taekwondo/7572409.stm Archived] from the original on 21 August 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2008.</ref> Mauritius,<ref name="iht">[https://web.archive.org/web/20160421235456/http://m.bt.com.bn/international_sport/2008/08/23/beijing_buzz "Mauritian delight at first ever medal"]. ''The Brunei Times''. Brunei. 23 August 2008. Archived from [http://m.bt.com.bn/international_sport/2008/08/23/beijing_buzz the original] on 21 April 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.</ref> Sudan,<ref>Osman, Mohamed (24 August 2008). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110714220216/http://2008games.nytimes.com/olympics/story.asp?i=20080824121844314602808&ref=rec&tm=&src=DOLY "Darfur runner wins Sudan's first Olympic medal"]. ''The New York Times''. Archived from [http://2008games.nytimes.com/olympics/story.asp?i=20080824121844314602808&ref=rec&tm=&src=DOLY the original] on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref> Tajikistan<ref>Talmadge, Eric (11 August 2008). [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/11/sports/11iht-olyjudo11.15183337.html?_r=1 "Italy, Azerbaijan win golds"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181225174704/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/11/sports/11iht-olyjudo11.15183337.html?_r=1 Archived] from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref> den Togo<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7556266.stm "Togo claims first Olympic medal"]. BBC. 12 August 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181225174655/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7556266.stm%20 Archived] from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref> win dema first Olympic medals. Mongolia (wich previously hold de record for most medals widout a gold)<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics/judo/7560951.stm "Naidan wins Mongolia's first gold"]. BBC. 14 August 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181225174701/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics/judo/7560951.stm%20 Archived] from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref> den Panama<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/18/sports/18iht-olyath118.15391333.html "Liu out, Isinbayeva gets world record"]. ''The New York Times''. 18 August 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181225174714/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/18/sports/18iht-olyath118.15391333.html Archived] from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref> win dema first gold medals. Four members of de water polo team wey komot Serbia win de first medal give dema country under ein fresh name, dem previously win medals dey represent Yugoslavia den Serbia and Montenegro.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080818231306/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-08/17/content_9416202.htm "Serbian PM congratulates swimmer on winning medal in Beijing Olympics"]. Chinaview.cn. 17 August 2008. Archived from [http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-08/17/content_9416202.htm the original] on 18 August 2008. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</ref> American swimmer Michael Phelps win total of eight gold medals, more dan any oda athlete insyd single Olympic Games, dey set chaw world den Olympic records for de process insyd.<ref name="crary" /> Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt sanso set records insyd several different events, dey plete de 100m final plus time of 9.69 seconds, dey beat ein own previous world record.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/athletics/7565203.stm "Bolt surges to gold in new record"]. BBC. 16 August 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181225174710/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics/athletics/7565203.stm Archived] from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 7 January 2013.</ref> Gymnast Nastia Liukin win de all-around gold medal insyd artistic gymnastics, wey she cam turn de third American female make she do so, dey follow de footsteps of Mary Lou Retton insyd 1984 den Carly Patterson insyd 2004.<ref>Scwartz, Alison (30 August 2012). [http://www.people.com/people/package/article/0,,20612225_20617996,00.html "Gabby Douglas poses with Nastia Liukin, Carly Patterson, and Mary Lou Retton"]. ''People''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181225174659/https://people.com/sports/gabby-douglas-poses-with-nastia-liukin-carly-patterson-and-mary-lou-retton/ Archived] from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 7 January 2013.</ref> Dese be de top ten nations wey win medals insyd de 2008 Games  ‡   Changes insyd medal standings  *   Host nation (China) {| class="wikitable sortable" |+2008 Summer Olympics medal table !Rank !<abbr>NOC</abbr> !Gold !Silver !Bronze !Total |- |1 !China*‡ |48 |22 |30 |100 |- |2 !United States‡ |36 |39 |37 |112 |- |3 !Russia‡ |24 |13 |23 |60 |- |4 !Great Britain‡ |19 |13 |19 |51 |- |5 !Germany‡ |16 |11 |14 |41 |- |6 !Australia |14 |15 |17 |46 |- |7 !South Korea‡ |13 |11 |8 |32 |- |8 !Japan‡ |9 |8 |8 |25 |- |9 !Italy‡ |8 |9 |10 |27 |- |10 !France‡ |7 |16 |20 |43 |- |11 !Netherlands |7 |5 |4 |16 |- |12 !Ukraine‡ |7 |4 |11 |22 |- |13 !Kenya‡ |6 |4 |6 |16 |- |14 !Spain‡ |5 |11 |3 |19 |- |15 !Jamaica‡ |5 |4 |2 |11 |- |16 !Poland‡ |4 |5 |2 |11 |- |17 !Ethiopia‡ |4 |2 |1 |7 |- |18 !Romania‡ |4 |1 |4 |9 |- |19 !Cuba‡ |3 |10 |17 |30 |- |20 !Canada‡ |3 |9 |8 |20 |- |21 !Hungary |3 |5 |2 |10 |- |22 !Norway‡ |3 |5 |1 |9 |- |23 !Brazil‡ |3 |4 |10 |17 |- |24 !Belarus‡ |3 |4 |7 |14 |- |25 !Czech Republic‡ |3 |3 |1 |7 |- |26 !Slovakia‡ |3 |3 |0 |6 |- |27 !New Zealand‡ |3 |2 |4 |9 |- |28 !Georgia‡ |3 |2 |2 |7 |- |29 !Kazakhstan‡ |2 |3 |4 |9 |- |30 !Denmark |2 |2 |3 |7 |- | rowspan="2" |31 !North Korea‡ |2 |2 |2 |6 |- !Thailand‡ |2 |2 |2 |6 |- |33 !Mongolia |2 |2 |0 |4 |- |34 !Switzerland‡ |2 |1 |4 |7 |- |35 !Argentina |2 |0 |4 |6 |- |36 !Mexico |2 |0 |2 |4 |- |37 !Belgium‡ |2 |0 |0 |2 |- |38 !Zimbabwe |1 |3 |0 |4 |- |39 !Slovenia |1 |2 |2 |5 |- | rowspan="2" |40 !Azerbaijan‡ |1 |1 |4 |6 |- !Indonesia‡ |1 |1 |4 |6 |- | rowspan="2" |42 !Bulgaria |1 |1 |3 |5 |- !Turkey‡ |1 |1 |3 |5 |- | rowspan="2" |44 !Chinese Taipei‡ |1 |1 |2 |4 |- !Finland |1 |1 |2 |4 |- |46 !Latvia |1 |1 |1 |3 |- | rowspan="4" |47 !Dominican Republic |1 |1 |0 |2 |- !Estonia |1 |1 |0 |2 |- !Portugal |1 |1 |0 |2 |- !Trinidad and Tobago‡ |1 |1 |0 |2 |- |51 !India |1 |0 |2 |3 |- |52 !Iran |1 |0 |1 |2 |- | rowspan="3" |53 !Cameroon |1 |0 |0 |1 |- !Panama |1 |0 |0 |1 |- !Tunisia |1 |0 |0 |1 |- |56 !Sweden‡ |0 |4 |1 |5 |- | rowspan="2" |57 !Lithuania‡ |0 |3 |2 |5 |- !Nigeria‡ |0 |3 |2 |5 |- |59 !Croatia |0 |2 |3 |5 |- | rowspan="2" |60 !Colombia‡ |0 |2 |1 |3 |- !Greece‡ |0 |2 |1 |3 |- |62 !Armenia‡ |0 |1 |4 |5 |- |63 !Uzbekistan‡ |0 |1 |3 |4 |- | rowspan="4" |64 !Austria |0 |1 |2 |3 |- !Ireland |0 |1 |2 |3 |- !Kyrgyzstan‡ |0 |1 |2 |3 |- !Serbia |0 |1 |2 |3 |- | rowspan="4" |68 !Algeria |0 |1 |1 |2 |- !Bahamas |0 |1 |1 |2 |- !Morocco |0 |1 |1 |2 |- !Tajikistan |0 |1 |1 |2 |- | rowspan="9" |72 !Chile |0 |1 |0 |1 |- !Ecuador |0 |1 |0 |1 |- !Iceland |0 |1 |0 |1 |- !Malaysia |0 |1 |0 |1 |- !Samoa‡ |0 |1 |0 |1 |- !Singapore |0 |1 |0 |1 |- !South Africa |0 |1 |0 |1 |- !Sudan |0 |1 |0 |1 |- !Vietnam |0 |1 |0 |1 |- |81 !Egypt |0 |0 |2 |2 |- | rowspan="6" |82 !Afghanistan |0 |0 |1 |1 |- !Israel |0 |0 |1 |1 |- !Mauritius |0 |0 |1 |1 |- !Moldova |0 |0 |1 |1 |- !Togo |0 |0 |1 |1 |- !Venezuela |0 |0 |1 |1 |- ! colspan="2" |Totals (87 entries) !302 !303 !353 !958 |} === Podium sweeps === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Date !Sport !Event !NOC !Gold !Silver !Bronze |- |9 August |Fencing |Women's sabre |United States |Mariel Zagunis |Sada Jacobson |Rebecca Ward |- |17 August |Athletics |Women's 100 meters |Jamaica |Shelly-Ann Fraser |Sherone Simpson Kerron Stewart |''Not awarded'' |- |17 August |Tennis |Women's singles |Russia |Elena Dementieva |Dinara Safina |Vera Zvonareva |- |18 August |Athletics |Men's 400 meters hurdles |United States |Angelo Taylor |Kerron Clement |Bershawn Jackson |- |21 August |Athletics |Men's 400 meters |United States |LaShawn Merritt |Jeremy Wariner |David Neville |- |22 August |Table tennis |Women's singles |China |Zhang Yining |Wang Nan |Guo Yue |- |23 August |Table tennis |Men's singles |China |Ma Lin |Wang Hao |Wang Liqin |} == References == <references /> == External links == '''2008 Summer Olympics''' for Wikipedia ein sisto projects * [[commons:Category:2008_Summer_Olympics|Media]] from Commons * [[wikidata:Q8567|Data]] from Wikidata Wikivoyage get travel guide give '''''[[wikivoyage:Beijing_2008#Q8567|Beijing 2008]]'''''. Scholia get ''topic'' profile give '''''[[toolforge:scholia/topic/Q8567|2008 Summer Olympics]]'''''. * [https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/beijing-2008 "Beijing 2008"]. ''Olympics.com''. International Olympic Committee. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081012084504/http://en.beijing2008.cn/index.shtml "2008 Summer Olympics Official Site"]. Archived from the original on 12 October 2008. Retrieved 20 June 2013. * [http://www.moderndayruins.com/2012/08/with-summer-olympics-just-coming-to_31.html Beijing Olympic Sites Four Years Later – What Remains at Modern Day Ruins] * Mallon, Bill (18 January 2019). [https://web.archive.org/web/20250616233448/https://olympstats.com/2019/01/18/all-olympic-doping-positives-the-count-by-games/ "ALL OLYMPIC DOPING POSITIVES – THE COUNT BY GAMES"]. ''OlympStats''. {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="3" |Summer Olympics |- | rowspan="1" |Precede by Athens | rowspan="1" |'''XXIX Olympiad''' '''Beijing''' 2008 | rowspan="1" |Succeed by [[2012 Summer Olympics|London]] |} [[Category:2008 Summer Olympics]] [[Category:2008 insyd Chinese sport]] [[Category:Olympic Games insyd China]] [[Category:Sports competitions insyd Beijing]] [[Category:2008 insyd Beijing]] [[Category:2008 insyd multi-sport events]] [[Category:Summer Olympics by year]] [[Category:August 2008 sports events insyd Asia]] 3regsl7z9d3wdgn1ef9unm82kuz79t6 0 8258 100398 38540 2026-06-06T05:51:52Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 100398 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''2012 Summer Olympics''', officially de '''Games of the XXX Olympiad''' wey dem sanso know am as '''London 2012''', na ebe international multi-sport event dem hold from 27 July to 12 August 2012 insyd London, England, United Kingdom. De first event, de group stage insyd women's football, begin for 25 July for de Millennium Stadium insyd Cardiff, Wales, follow by de opening ceremony for 27 July.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080801100305/http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/london/index_uk.asp "London 2012"]. ''olympic.org''. International Olympic Committee. Archived from [http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/london/index_uk.asp the original] on 1 August 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2008.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160111234444/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/2012/schedule-results/list/football/20120725 "Olympics Schedule & Results – Wednesday 25 July, Football"]. ''BBC Sport''. Archived from [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/2012/schedule-results/list/football/20120725 the original] on 11 January 2016.</ref> Na der be 10,518 athletes wey komot 206 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) wey participate insyd de 2012 Olympics.<ref name=":7">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120718221053/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/2012/countries "Olympics – Countries"]. ''BBC Sport''. Archived from [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/2012/countries the original] on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 19 July 2012. <q>From the 27th of July 2012 – 204 countries will send more than 10,000 athletes to compete in 300 events</q></ref> Dey follow bid head by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe den de then-London mayor Ken Livingstone, na dem select London as de host city for de 117th IOC Session insyd Singapore for 6 July 2005, dem defeat bids from Moscow, New York City, Madrid, den Paris.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091005010107/http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Olympic-Games/All-Future-Olympic-Games/Summer/London-2012 "London 2012: Election"]. ''olympic.org''. International Olympic Committee. Archived from [http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Olympic-Games/All-Future-Olympic-Games/Summer/London-2012 the original] on 5 October 2009. Retrieved 2 October 2009.</ref> London cam turn de first city make e host de modern Olympics three times,<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/4654821.stm "Coe promises Olympics to remember"]. ''BBC Sport''. 6 July 2005. [http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110609063729/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/4654821.stm Archived] from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008.</ref> dem previously host de Summer Games insyd 1908 den 1948.<ref>Barden, Mark (26 April 2008). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/7361921.stm "London's first Olympics"]. ''BBC Sport''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080501025441/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/7361921.stm Archived] from the original on 1 May 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2008.</ref><ref>Greenberg, Stan (3 March 2011). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/olympics_1948_gallery.shtml "The 1948 London Olympics Gallery"]. ''BBC History''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080718202435/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/olympics_1948_gallery.shtml Archived] from the original on 18 July 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2008.</ref> Construction give de Games involve considerable redevelopment, plus emphasis for sustainability top.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091018073244/http://www.london2012.com/plans/sustainability/getting-ready/index.php "Building a sustainable Games"]. London 2012. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/plans/sustainability/getting-ready/index.php the original] on 18 October 2009. Retrieved 2 October 2009.</ref> Na de main focus be fresh 200-hectare (490-acre) Olympic Park, dem construct am for former industrial site insyd Stratford, East London.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120424194043/http://www.newham.gov.uk/2012Games/AboutThe2012Games/TheOlympicPark.htm "Newham London: The Olympic Park"]. London Borough of Newham. Archived from [http://www.newham.gov.uk/2012Games/AboutThe2012Games/TheOlympicPark.htm the original] on 24 April 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2012.</ref> De Games sanso use venues wey already exist before de bid.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120722094808/http://www.london2012.com/mm/Document/Publications/CandidateFile/01/24/07/59/questionnaire-response-english.pdf "Response to the questionnaire for cities applying to become Candidate cities to host the Games of the XXX Olympiad and the Paralympic Games in 2012"] (PDF). London 2012. Archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20120722094808/http://www.london2012.com/mm/Document/Publications/CandidateFile/01/24/07/59/questionnaire-response-english.pdf the original] (PDF) on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2012.</ref> De United States top de medal table, dem win de most gold medals (48) den de highest number of medals overall (104). China fini second plus total of 91 medals (38 gold) wey Great Britain cam third plus 65 medals overall (29 gold). Michael Phelps of de United States cam turn de most decorated Olympic athlete of all time for de time, he win ein 22nd medal.<ref>McCrae, Donald (1 August 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/jul/31/london-2012-michael-phelps-olympian "Michael Phelps becomes the greatest Olympian"]. ''The Guardian''. London. p. 1. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193643/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/jul/31/london-2012-michael-phelps-olympian Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 11 August 2012.</ref> Saudi Arabia, Qatar den Brunei enter female athletes for de first time, dey mean say every currently eligible country now send female competitor for at least one Olympic Games.<ref>Magnay, Jacquelin (11 August 2012). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9468113/London-2012-Olympics-diary-three-countries-have-failed-to-send-any-female-athletes.html "London 2012 Olympics diary: three countries have failed to send any female athletes"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120813231039/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9468113/London-2012-Olympics-diary-three-countries-have-failed-to-send-any-female-athletes.html Archived] from the original on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref> Na dem include women's boxing for de first time, den de 2012 Games cam turn de first for wich na every sport get female competitors.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/19096530 "London 2012 international digest – Day Six"]. ''BBC Sport''. 2 August 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120805011840/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/19096530 Archived] from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2012.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120715100639/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2012/olympics/2012/07/12/saudi-arabia-women-london-olympics.ap/index.html "Saudis to send two women to London, make history"]. ''SI.com''. Associated Press. 12 July 2012. Archived from [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2012/olympics/2012/07/12/saudi-arabia-women-london-olympics.ap/index.html the original] on 15 July 2012. Retrieved 13 July 2012.</ref><ref>[https://www.latimes.com/opinion/editorials/la-xpm-2012-jul-27-la-ed-olympics-women-20120727-story.html "An Olympic moment for women"]. ''L.A. Times Archives''. 27 July 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190917161757/https://www.latimes.com/opinion/editorials/la-xpm-2012-jul-27-la-ed-olympics-women-20120727-story.html Archived] from the original on 17 September 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2015.</ref> De Games receive considerable praise for dema organisation, plus de volunteers, de British military den public enthusiasm commend particularly highly.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19233495 "London 2012: IOC chief Jacques Rogge 'very happy' with Games"]. ''BBC News''. 12 August 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120813101505/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19233495 Archived] from the original on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref><ref>Waldram, Hannah (12 August 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/london-2012-olympics-blog/2012/aug/12/has-olympics-changed-london-2012 "Has the Olympics changed London?"]. ''The Guardian (London 2012 Olympics blog)''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193544/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/london-2012-olympics-blog/2012/aug/12/has-olympics-changed-london-2012 Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref><ref>Scanlan, Wayne (10 August 2012). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120816063024/https://calgaryherald.com/sports/2012-summer-games/Buoyed+record+medal+haul+suprisingly+sunny/7072134/story.html "Buoyed by a record medal haul – and surprisingly sunny skies – the British have embraced the Olympics, turning out to live sites in droves to cheer on Team GB"]. ''Calgary Herald''. London. Archived from [https://calgaryherald.com/sports/2012-summer-games/Buoyed+record+medal+haul+suprisingly+sunny/7072134/story.html the original] on 16 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref> Na dem describe de Games as "happy and glorious".<ref name=":6">[https://olympics.com/en/news/happy-and-glorious-london-bids-farewell-to-the-games ""Happy and Glorious": London bids farewell to the Games"].</ref> De opening ceremony, Academy Award winner Danny Boyle direct am, receive widespread acclaim.<ref>Goldsmith, Harvey; Phillips, Arlene; Quantick, David; Brown, Mick; Beard, Mary (29 July 2012). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9434563/London-2012-the-experts-view-of-the-Olympic-opening-ceremony.html "London 2012: the experts' view of the Olympic opening ceremony".] ''The Sunday Telegraph''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120813183157/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9434563/London-2012-the-experts-view-of-the-Olympic-opening-ceremony.html Archived] from the original on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref><ref>Topping, Alexandra (28 July 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/jul/27/olympics-opening-ceremony-view-from-abroad "Olympics opening ceremony: the view from abroad"]. ''The Guardian''. London. p. 2. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131105042926/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/jul/27/olympics-opening-ceremony-view-from-abroad Archived] from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref> Na dese be de final Olympic Games under de IOC presidency of Belgian Jacques Rogge, wey na German Thomas Bach succeed am de next year. == Bidding process == Na dem choose London over Birmingham make e represent Great Britain ein bid by de British Olympic Association. By 15 July 2003—de deadline for interested cities make dem submit bids to de International Olympic Committee (IOC)—na nine cities submit bids make dem host de 2012 Summer Olympics: Havana, Istanbul, Leipzig, London, Madrid, Moscow, New York City, Paris, den Rio de Janeiro.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/3068323.stm "Olympic bids: The rivals"]. ''BBC Sport''. 15 July 2003. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090210040857/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/3068323.stm Archived] from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2008.</ref> For 18 May 2004, as result of scored technical evaluation, de IOC reduce de number of cities to five: London, Madrid, Moscow, New York den Paris.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/3725157.stm "London bid team delighted"]. ''BBC Sport''. 18 May 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20060313040837/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/3725157.stm Archived] from the original on 13 March 2006. Retrieved 3 August 2008.</ref> All five submit dema candidate files by 19 November 2004 wey de IOC inspection team visit dem during February den March 2005. Na de Paris bid suffer two setbacks during de IOC inspection visit: number of strikes den demonstrations coincide plus de visits, den report say key member of de bid team, Guy Drut, go face charges over alleged corrupt party political finances.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061020064434/http://www.gamesbids.com/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?category=1&id=1110389129 "Day One Of Paris 2012 Inspection By IOC"]. ''GamesBids.com''. Archived from [http://www.gamesbids.com/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?category=1&id=1110389129 the original] on 20 October 2006. Retrieved 9 March 2005.</ref> Thru out de process, na dem widely see Paris as de favourite, particularly as na dis be ein third bid for recent years insyd. Na dem initially see London as e dey lag behind Paris by considerable margin.<ref>Oliver, Mark (6 July 2005). [https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/jul/06/olympics2012.olympicgames1 "London wins 2012 Olympics"]. ''The Guardian''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140102192648/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/jul/06/olympics2012.olympicgames1 Archived] from the original on 2 January 2014. <q>The IOC president, Jacques Rogge, announced the result at 1248BST – around an hour after it had been decided in secret.</q></ref> Ein position begin dey improve after de appointment of Lord Coe as de new chair of de London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games (LOCOG) for 19 May 2004.<ref>Payne, Michael. [https://archive.today/20121212085630/http://bsr.london.edu/lbs-article/673/index.html "How London really won the games"]. ''London Business School''. Archived from [http://bsr.london.edu/lbs-article/673/index.html the original] on 12 December 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.</ref> Insyd late August 2004, reports predict tie between London den Paris.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20041107021325/http://www.gamesbids.com/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?category=1&id=1093970849 "London And Paris Tie In 2012 Bid"]. ''GamesBids.com''. Archived from [http://www.gamesbids.com/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?category=1&id=1093970849 the original] on 7 November 2004. Retrieved 31 August 2004.</ref> For 6 June 2005, de IOC release ein evaluation reports for de five candidate cities. Na dem no contain any scores anaa rankings, buh na dem consider de report give Paris de most positive. Na London be close behind, e close chaw of de gap dem observe by de initial evaluation insyd 2004. New York den Madrid sanso receive very positive evaluations.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060418052415/http://www.gamesbids.com/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?category=1&id=1118060827 "Paris, London and New York Get Glowing IOC Reports"]. ''GamesBids.com''. Archived from [http://www.gamesbids.com/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?category=1&id=1118060827 the original] on 18 April 2006. Retrieved 6 June 2005.</ref> For 1 July 2005, wen dem biz am who go win, Jacques Rogge say, "I cannot predict it since I don't know how the IOC members will vote. But my gut feeling tells me that it will be very close. Perhaps it will come down to a difference of say ten votes, or maybe less."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118194440/http://www.sailing.org/news/12257.php "Rogge Arrives in Singapore"]. ''sailing.org''. International Sailing Federation. 1 July 2005. Archived from [http://www.sailing.org/news/12257.php the original] on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 6 March 2007.</ref> For 6 July 2005, na dem announce de final selection for de 117th IOC Session insyd Singapore. Na Moscow be de first city make dem eliminate, follow by New York den Madrid. Na de final two contenders be London den Paris. At de end of de fourth round of voting, London win de right make e host de 2012 Games plus 54 votes to 50.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/front_page/4655555.stm "London beats Paris to 2012 Games"]. ''BBC Sport''. 6 July 2005. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170725072233/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/front_page/4655555.stm Archived] from the original on 25 July 2017.</ref> Na de celebrations insyd London be short-lived, ebe overshadow by bombings for London ein transport system less dan 24 hours after de announcement.<ref>Culf, Andrew (6 July 2005). [https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/sep/02/london.Olympics2012 "The party that never was: capital marks the games at last"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081002091306/http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/sep/02/london.Olympics2012 Archived] from the original on 2 October 2008. Retrieved 22 August 2008.</ref> 12 years later, na dem later choose Paris as de host of de [[2024 Summer Olympics|2024 games]] insyd 2017.<ref>[https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-makes-historic-decision-by-simultaneously-awarding-olympic-games-2024-to-paris-and-2028-to-los-angeles "IOC makes historic decision by simultaneously awarding Olympic Games 2024 to Paris and 2028 to Los Angeles"]. ''Olympics''. 13 September 2017. Retrieved 26 August 2024.</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+'''2012 host city election – ballot results''' ! rowspan="2" |City ! rowspan="2" |Country ! colspan="4" |Round |- !1 !2 !3 !4 |- |'''London''' | '''Great Britain''' |'''22''' |27 |'''39''' |'''54''' |- |Paris |France |21 |25 |33 |50 |- |Madrid |Spain |20 |'''32''' |31 |— |- |New York City |United States |19 |17 |— |— |- |Moscow |Russia |15 |— |— |— |- | |'''Total ballots''' |97 |101 |103 |104 |} == Development den preparations == Na dem create de London Organising Committee of de Olympic Games (LOCOG) make e oversee de staging of de Games, wey dem hold ein first board meeting for 3 October 2005.<ref name=":0">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120119122828/http://www.lda.gov.uk/news-and-events/media-centre/press-releases/2005/locog-formally-established-at-first-meeting-of-london-2012-transition-board.aspx "LOCOG formally established at first meeting of London 2012 Transition Board"]. ''London Development Agency'' (Press release). 3 October 2005. Archived from [http://www.lda.gov.uk/news-and-events/media-centre/press-releases/2005/locog-formally-established-at-first-meeting-of-london-2012-transition-board.aspx the original] on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> De committee, chair by Lord Coe, na he be in charge of implementing den staging de Games, while de Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA), dem establish insyd April 2006, na ebe in charge of construction of de venues den infrastructure.<ref name=":0" /><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120227155513/https://www.london2012.com/news/2006/07/lemley-chairs-first-oda-board-meeting.php "Lemley chairs first ODA board meeting"] (Press release). London 2012. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/news/2006/07/lemley-chairs-first-oda-board-meeting.php the original] on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> De Government Olympic Executive (GOE), unit within de Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), na ebe de lead government body for coordinating de London 2012 Olympics. E focus for oversight of de Games, cross-programme management, den de London 2012 Olympic Legacy before den after de Games wey go benefit London den de wider United Kingdom. Na de organisation sanso be responsible for de supervision of de £9.3 billion of public sector funding.<ref>[http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/2012_olympic_games_and_paralympic_games/default.aspx "2012 Olympic Games & Paralympic Games"]. Department for Culture, Media and Sport. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111026041400/http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/2012_olympic_games_and_paralympic_games/default.aspx Archived] from the original on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Insyd August 2011, security concerns arise wey dey surround de hosting of de Olympic Games insyd London, dey follow de 2011 England riots.<ref>Macur, Juliet; Pfanner, Eric (9 August 2011). [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/10/sports/london-rioting-prompts-fears-over-soccer-matches-and-the-olympics.html "London Rioting Prompts Fears Over Soccer and Olympics"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120306212647/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/10/sports/london-rioting-prompts-fears-over-soccer-matches-and-the-olympics.html Archived] from the original on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2011.</ref> Sam countries express safety concerns,<ref>Foster, Peter (9 August 2011). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/8690809/London-riots-China-raises-questions-over-safety-of-2012-Olympic-Games.html "London riots: China raises questions over safety of 2012 Olympic Games"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110811044036/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/8690809/London-riots-China-raises-questions-over-safety-of-2012-Olympic-Games.html Archived] from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2011.</ref> despite de IOC ein assurance say de riots no go affect de Games.<ref>Jackson, Jamie (9 August 2011). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/aug/09/london-riots-2012-olympics "London riots will not affect 2012 Olympic security, says IOC"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193520/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/aug/09/london-riots-2012-olympics Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 11 August 2011.</ref> De IOC ein Coordination Commission for de 2012 Games plete ein tenth den final visit to London insyd March 2012. Ein members conclude say "London is ready to host the world this summer".<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/news?articlenewsgroup=-1&articleid=159094 "London is ready to host the Olympic Games as excitement builds"]. Olympic.org. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120815025657/http://www.olympic.org/news?articlenewsgroup=-1&articleid=159094 Archived] from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 13 April 2012.</ref> === Venues === [[File:London_Queen_Elizabeth_Olympic_Park.jpg|thumb|De Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park]] De 2012 Olympic den Paralympic Games use mixture of fresh venues, existing den historic facilities, den temporary facilities, sam of dem dey well-known locations such as Hyde Park den Horse Guards Parade. After de Games, dem go reuse sam of de fresh facilities insyd dema Olympic form, while dem go resize anaa relocate odas.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111007091359/http://excel-london.co.uk/mediacentre/pressoffice/london2012 "London 2012"]. ''ExCel-London.co.uk''. 6 July 2005. Archived from [http://www.excel-london.co.uk/mediacentre/pressoffice/london2012 the original] on 7 October 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na dem divide de majority of venues into three zones within Greater London: de Olympic Zone, de River Zone den de Central Zone. For addition na der be few venues dat, by necessity, na dem be outsyd de boundaries of Greater London, such as de Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy sam 125 (201 km) southwest of London, wich host de sailing events. Na dem stage de football tournament for several grounds around de UK.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120304063707/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/7758646.stm "Olympics 2012 venue guide"]. ''BBC Sport''. 3 December 2008. Archived from [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/7758646.stm the original] on 4 March 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Work begin for de Park top insyd December 2006, wen na dem pull down a sports hall insyd Eton Manor.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/6179069.stm "Work begins on 2012 Olympic Park"]. ''BBC Sport''. 14 December 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070112232122/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/6179069.stm Archived] from the original on 12 January 2007. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na dem plete de athletes dema village insyd Portland for September 2011 insyd.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-14896476 "Osprey Quay Olympic village topping out ceremony"]. ''BBC News''. 13 September 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110919010332/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-14896476 Archived] from the original on 19 September 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> [[File:London_Olympic_Stadium_West_Ham.jpg|thumb|London Olympic Stadium ]] Insyd November 2004, na dem reveal de 200-hectare (500-acre) Olympic Park plans.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/3990319.stm "London reveals Olympic Park plans"]. ''BBC Sport''. 8 November 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20051029094314/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/3990319.stm Archived] from the original on 29 October 2005. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na dem approve de plans give de site insyd September 2004 by Tower Hamlets, Newham, Hackney den Waltham Forest.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3639130.stm "2012 Olympic Park gets go ahead"]. ''BBC News''. 9 September 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20060618141714/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3639130.stm Archived] from the original on 18 June 2006. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> De redevelopment of de area make dem build de Olympic Park require compulsory purchase orders of property. Na de London Development Agency dey in dispute plus London and Continental Railways about de orders insyd November 2005. By May 2006, na dem buy 86% of de land as businesses fight eviction.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4753045.stm "Probe into Olympic land evictions"]. ''BBC News''. 9 May 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20061215074617/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4753045.stm Archived] from the original on 15 December 2006. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Residents wey oppose de eviction try make dem find ways make dem stop am by dem set up campaigns, buh na dem for lef as dem buy 94% of land wey de oda 6% dem buy as dem start £9 billion regeneration project.<ref>Hartley, Debbie (11 March 2009). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/7937133.stm "Stratford's last stand"]. ''BBC Sport''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090316082113/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/7937133.stm Archived] from the original on 16 March 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na der be sam issues plus de original venues no be challenging enough anaa ebe financially unviable. Na dem initially consider both de Olympic road races den de mountain bike event say e be too easy, so dem eventually schedule dem for fresh locations top.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110907052443/http://www.london2012.com/games/olympic-sports/cycling-road.php "Cycling – Road"]. ''London2012.com''. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/games/olympic-sports/cycling-road.php the original] on 7 September 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/london_2012/7554020.stm "Essex venue to host 2012 biking"]. ''BBC Sport''. 11 August 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090113051820/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics/london_2012/7554020.stm Archived] from the original on 13 January 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> De Olympic marathon course, wich na dem set am make e fini insyd de Olympic stadium, na dem move am go The Mall, since na dem deem if dem close Tower Bridge go cause traffic problems insyd central London.<ref>Gibson, Owen (4 October 2010). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2010/oct/04/london-2012-marathon-mall "London 2012 marathon to finish at The Mall despite East End protests"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193533/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2010/oct/04/london-2012-marathon-mall Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na dem scrap North Greenwich Arena 2 insyd cost-cutting exercise, na dem use Wembley Arena for badminton den rhythmic gymnastics events instead.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2008/10/17/greenwich_o2_wembley_feature.shtml "Greenwich or Wembley?"]. ''BBC London''. 17 October 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120203123600/http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2008/10/17/greenwich_o2_wembley_feature.shtml Archived] from the original on 3 February 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref><ref>Henson, Mike (15 June 2009). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/8101822.stm "Boxing chiefs voice 2012 concerns"]. ''BBC Sport''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090616012530/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympic_games/8101822.stm Archived] from the original on 16 June 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/8015377.stm "Wembley may stage Olympic boxing"]. ''BBC Sport''. 23 April 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090426065958/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/8015377.stm Archived] from the original on 26 April 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120610234954/http://www.morethanthegames.co.uk/summer-sports/2610926-badminton-and-rhythmic-gymnastics-agree-london-2012-wembley-move "Badminton and rhythmic gymnastics agree to London 2012 Wembley move"]. ''MoreThanTheGames.co.uk''. 26 May 2010. Archived from [http://www.morethanthegames.co.uk/summer-sports/2610926-badminton-and-rhythmic-gymnastics-agree-london-2012-wembley-move the original] on 10 June 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na dem hold test events thru out 2011 den 2012, either thru existing championship such as 2012 Wimbledon Championships anaa as specially created event dem hold under de banner of ''London Prepares''.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/london_2012/9397066.stm "London 2012 Olympic test event schedule unveiled"]. ''BBC Sport''. 24 February 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110227194749/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympic_games/london_2012/9397066.stm Archived] from the original on 27 February 2011.</ref> Na Team GB House be de British Olympic Association ein operational HQ up to den during de 2012 Olympic den Paralympic Games. Architects Gebler Tooth design for de top floor of sam office building insyd Westfield Stratford City, e combine de team HQ, athletes dema "Friends and Family" lounge, Press Centre, den VIP lounge. === Public transport === [[File:St_Pancras_railway_station_MMB_31_395018.jpg|right|thumb|De Olympic Javelin high-speed service run between St Pancras den Ebbsfleet, via Stratford.]] IOC's ein initial evaluation feel say, if na dem deliver transport improvements in time give de Games, London go cope.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Host_city_elections/2012_OG-Report_of_the_Evaluation_Commission.pdf "Report of the IOC Evaluation Commission for the Games of the XXX Olympiad in 2012"] (PDF). Olympic.org. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120803071036/http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Host_city_elections/2012_OG-Report_of_the_Evaluation_Commission.pdf Archived] (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2012.</ref> Transport for London (TfL) carry out chaw improvements for preparation give 2012, wey dey include de expansion of de London Overground ein East London Line, dey upgrade to de Docklands Light Railway den de North London Line, den de introduction of fresh "Javelin" high-speed rail service.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/3957867.stm "High-speed rail links confirmed"]. ''BBC News''. 27 October 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090215114217/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/3957867.stm Archived] from the original on 15 February 2009.</ref> According to Network Rail, additional 4,000 train services operate during de Games, wey train operators run longer trains during de day.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13534021 "Extra trains planned for visitors to London 2012 venues"]. ''BBC News''. 25 May 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120319063640/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13534021 Archived] from the original on 19 March 2012.</ref> During de Games, na any international services no serve Stratford International station (just as e no be before de Games),<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10154343 "Eurostar 'will not stop' at Stratford International"]. ''BBC News''. 25 May 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130303051015/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10154343 Archived] from the original on 3 March 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2012.</ref> westbound trains no stop for Hackney Wick railway station,<ref>[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120719155804/http://www.getaheadofthegames.com/travelinaffectedareas/city/transport/publictransportoverlay/hackneywick.html "Hackney Wick"]. ''Get Ahead of the Games''. Transport for London. Archived from [http://www.getaheadofthegames.com/travelinaffectedareas/city/transport/publictransportoverlay/hackneywick.html the original] on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2012.</ref> den Pudding Mill Lane DLR station close entirely during de Games.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120723070306/http://www.getaheadofthegames.com/travelinaffectedareas/city/transport/publictransportoverlay/439.html "Pudding Mill Lane"]. ''Get Ahead of the Games''. Transport for London. Archived from [http://www.getaheadofthegames.com/travelinaffectedareas/city/transport/publictransportoverlay/439.html the original] on 23 July 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2012.</ref> [[File:Emirates_Air_Line_above_Royal_Victoria_Dock_-_geograph.org.uk_-_4709077.jpg|thumb|De Emirates Air Line dey cross de River Thames between Greenwich Peninsula den de Royal Docks.]] TfL sanso build £25 million cable car across de River Thames, dem bell de Emirates Air Line, make e link 2012 Olympics venues.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/10501313.stm "Thames cable car to link 2012 Olympic Games venues"]. ''BBC News''. 4 July 2010. [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120424194220/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10501313 Archived] from the original on 24 April 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2010.</ref> Na dem inaugurate am insyd June 2012 wey e dey cross de Thames between Greenwich Peninsula den de Royal Docks, wey dey carry up to 2,500 passengers an hour, wey dey cut journey times between The O2 den de ExCeL exhibition centre den dey provide crossing every 30 seconds.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100912182337/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/media/newscentre/archive/16125.aspx "Plans unveiled for a new Thames crossing with London's first cable car system"] (Press release). Transport for London. 4 July 2010. Archived from [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/media/newscentre/archive/16125.aspx the original] on 12 September 2010. Retrieved 5 July 2010.</ref> Na de plan be make dem get 80% of athletes travel less dan 20 minutes go dema event<ref>[https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmtran/588/588i.pdf "Going for Gold: Transport for London's 2012 Olympic Games"] (PDF). House of Commons Transport Committee. 8 March 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111125061150/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmtran/588/588i.pdf Archived] (PDF) from the original on 25 November 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> den 93% of dem within 30 minutes of dema event.<ref name=":1">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/london_2012/4025027.stm "London plan at-a-glance"]. ''BBC Sport''. 6 July 2005. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081209004335/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/london_2012/4025027.stm Archived] from the original on 9 December 2008.</ref> De Olympic Park go be served by ten separate railway lines plus combined capacity of 240,000 passengers per hour.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3866209.stm "Free travel plan for Olympic bid"]. ''BBC News''. 5 July 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090302113322/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3866209.stm Archived] from the original on 2 March 2009.</ref> For addition, LOCOG plan give 90% of de venues make e be serve by three anaa more types of public transport.<ref name=":1" /> Na two park-and-ride sites off de M25 plus combined capacity of 12,000 cars be 25 minutes away from de Olympic Park. Na dem plan anoda park-and-ride site insyd Ebbsfleet plus capacity give 9,000 cars wer spectators fi board 10-minute shuttle train service.<ref name=":1" /> Make dem get spectators to Eton Dorney, na dem set up four park-and-ride schemes.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-berkshire-14911974 "Olympics 2012: Park and ride schemes for Dorney Lake events"]. ''BBC News''. 14 September 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111026054930/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-berkshire-14911974 Archived] from the original on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na First Games Transport dey operate dese Park den Ride services.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/north_east/8516359.stm "FirstGroup wins Olympics bus contract"]. ''BBC News''. 15 February 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100218202247/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/north_east/8516359.stm Archived] from the original on 18 February 2010.</ref> TfL define network of roads wey dey lead between venues as de Olympic Route Network; roads wey dey connect all of de Olympic venues locate within London. Chaw of dese roads sanso contain special "Olympic lanes" dem mark plus de Olympic rings-dem reserve give de use of Olympic athletes, officials, den oda VIPs during de Games. Members of de public wey dey drive insyd Olympic lane be subject to fine of £130. Additionally, na London buses no fi include roads plus Olympic lanes for dema routes top.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120305060001/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/18196.aspx "Olympic and Paralympic route network"]. ''TfL.gov.uk''. Archived from [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/18196.aspx the original] on 5 March 2012.</ref><ref>Beard, Matthew (15 November 2011). [https://www.standard.co.uk/olympics/olympic-news/revealed-the-road-signs-that-will-ban-drivers-from-olympic-lanes-6368234.html "Revealed: the road signs that will ban drivers from Olympic lanes"]. ''London Evening Standard''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170704130857/http://www.standard.co.uk/olympics/olympic-news/revealed-the-road-signs-that-will-ban-drivers-from-olympic-lanes-6368234.html Archived] from the original on 4 July 2017.</ref><ref>Tuffrey, Laurie (10 July 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/bike-blog/2012/jul/10/olympics-regulations-cyclists "Olympics regulations force cyclists to dismount"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113192008/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/bike-blog/2012/jul/10/olympics-regulations-cyclists Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2012.</ref> Na dem express concerns for de logistics of spectators wey dey travel go de events outsyd London. For particular, na de sailing events for Portland get no direct motorway connections, wey local roads be heavily congested by tourist traffic insyd de summer.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111103172317/http://www.panamericanchauffeurs.com/london_olympics_2012_airport_transfers.html "2012 London Olympic Games | London Chauffeur Limo Service"]. Panamerican Chauffeurs. 6 July 2005. Archived from [http://www.panamericanchauffeurs.com/london_olympics_2012_airport_transfers.html the original] on 3 November 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> However, na dem build £77 million relief road wey dey connect Weymouth to Dorchester wey dem gbele am insyd 2011.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/dorset/6529709.stm "Go-ahead won for £77m relief road"]. ''BBC News''. 5 April 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20071006044624/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/dorset/6529709.stm Archived] from the original on 6 October 2007.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-12769307 "Weymouth Olympic relief road is opened"]. ''BBC News''. 17 March 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110919012001/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-12769307 Archived] from the original on 19 September 2011.</ref> Na dem put aside sam £16 million give de rest of de improvements.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/dorset/8323724.stm "Olympics road plans put on show"]. ''BBC News''. 24 October 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20091027053339/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/dorset/8323724.stm Archived] from the original on 27 October 2009.</ref> TfL create promotional campaign den website, ''Get Ahead of the Games'', make e help provide information wey relate to transport during de Olympics den Paralympics. Thru de campaign, TfL sanso encourage de use of cycling as mode of transport.<ref>Gardner, Jasmine (26 July 2012). [https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/london-life/the-olympic-commute-get-ahead-of-the-games-by-bike-7978591.html "The Olympic commute... Get ahead of the Games by bike"]. ''London Evening Standard''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120803001316/http://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/london-life/the-olympic-commute-get-ahead-of-the-games-by-bike-7978591.html Archived] from the original on 3 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref> Na dem create temporary terminal for Heathrow Airport make dem use am by 10,100 athletes wey dey depart after de Games. Na dem dey expect up to 35% more bags dan normal for 13 August, wich na dem predict make e be de busiest day insyd de airport ein history, according to Nick Cole, head of Olympic den Paralympic planning for Heathrow. === Cost den financing === Study wey komot Oxford University find say de sports-related costs of London 2012 amount to US$15 billion, compare plus $4.6 billion give Rio 2016, $40–44 billion give Beijing 2008, den $51 billion give Sochi 2014 (de most expensive Olympics insyd history). London 2012 go over budget by 76% for real terms, dem measure from bid go completion. Na de cost per athlete be $1.4 million.<ref>Flyvbjerg, Bent; Stewart, Allison; Budzier, Alexander (2016). ''The Oxford Olympics Study 2016: Cost and Cost Overrun at the Games''. Saïd Business School, University of Oxford. arXiv:[[arxiv:1607.04484|1607.04484]]. doi:[[doi:10.2139/ssrn.2804554|10.2139/ssrn.2804554]]. ISSN [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068 1556-5068]. S2CID [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156794182 156794182]. SSRN [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2804554 2804554].</ref> Dis no dey include wider costs give urban den transport infrastructure, wich often equal anaa exceed de sports-related costs. Na de costs of staging de Games be separate from those give building de venues den infrastructure den redeveloping de land give de Olympic Park. While na dem privately fund de Games, na dem largely finance de venues den infrastructure dem use public money. According to ''The Wall Street Journal'', na de original budget give de Games dem increase to about £9.3 billion (US$15.28&nbsp;billion) insyd 2007.<ref>Pearman, Hugh (24 July 2012). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303754904577532921054250902 "These Knock-Down, Shrinkable Games"]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. p. D6. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201112014235/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303754904577532921054250902 Archived] from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 25 July 2012.</ref> Na dem announce de revised figures to de House of Commons for 15 March 2007 by Tessa Jowell. Along plus East End regeneration costs, na de breakdown be: * Dey build de venues den infrastructure – £5.3 billion * Elite sport den Paralympic funding – £400 million * Security den policing – £600 million * Regeneration of de Lower Lea Valley – £1.7 billion * Contingency fund&nbsp;– £2.7&nbsp;billion === Volunteers === Unpaid volunteers dem know as Games Makers perform variety of tasks before den during de Games.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120424201321/http://www.london2012.com/volunteer "Volunteering – Making the Games happen"]. London 2012. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/volunteer the original] on 24 April 2012. Retrieved 15 April 2012.</ref> Na dem set up target of 70,000 volunteers as early as 2004.<ref>Shifrin, Tash (10 February 2004). [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2004/feb/10/volunteering "Olympic appeal as volunteer target hit"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193705/http://www.theguardian.com/society/2004/feb/10/volunteering Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2012.</ref> Wen recruitment take place insyd 2010, na dem receive more dan 240,000 applications.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120424204030/http://www.london2012.com/get-involved/volunteer/london-2012-games-makers/10-games-maker-facts.php "10 Games Maker facts"]. London 2012. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/get-involved/volunteer/london-2012-games-makers/10-games-maker-facts.php the original] on 24 April 2012. Retrieved 15 April 2012.</ref> Sebastian Coe say insyd February 2012, "Our Games Makers will contribute a total of around eight million volunteer hours during the Games and the Games simply wouldn't happen without them".<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9061305/London-2012-Olympics-volunteers-training-day-at-Wembley-Stadium-as-they-prepare-for-Games.html "Volunteers training day at Wembley Stadium as they prepare for Games"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. London. 4 February 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120206234020/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9061305/London-2012-Olympics-volunteers-training-day-at-Wembley-Stadium-as-they-prepare-for-Games.html Archived] from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 15 April 2012.</ref> De volunteers wear clothing wey include purple den red polo shirts den jackets, beige trousers, grey socks den grey-and-white trainers, wich dem collect from de Uniform Distribution and Accreditation Centre. Volunteers sanso wear photo accreditation badges wey na officials, athletes, family members den media sanso wear dem, wich gain dem access to specific venues den buildings around de site. === Ticketing === Organisers estimate sam 8 million tickets go be available give de Olympic Games,<ref name=":2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20070202155136/http://www.london2012.org/en/ourvision/Ticketing.htm "Just the ticket"]. ''London 2012''. Archived from [http://www.london2012.org/en/ourvision/Ticketing.htm the original] on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2012.</ref> den 1.5 million tickets give de Paralympic Games.<ref name=":2" /> LOCOG aim make dem raise £375–£400 million for ticket sales insyd. Na der sanso be free events such as marathon, triathlon den road cycling,<ref>[https://abcnews.go.com/Travel/wireStory?id=10171244 "London Opens Ticket Process for 2012 Olympics"]. ''ABC News''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100325093452/https://abcnews.go.com/Travel/wireStory?id=10171244 Archived] from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 20 May 2010.</ref> although, for de first time insyd Olympic history, dem ticket de sailing events.<ref>ISAF (28 July 2011). [https://web.archive.org/web/20111020014531/http://www.sailing.org/london2012/news/36364.php "ISAF: London 2012 Olympic Games Sailing Competition: What Is The Weymouth And Portland International Regatta?"]. Sailing.org. Archived from [http://www.sailing.org/london2012/news/36364.php the original] on 20 October 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Eventually, dem sell more dan 7,000,000 tickets.<ref>Adam, Karla (30 July 2012). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/at-london-olympics-empty-seats-have-organizers-scrambling-giving-away-tickets-to-children-and-soldiers/2012/07/29/gJQA6YVBJX_story.html "At London Olympics, empty seats have organizers scrambling, giving away tickets to children and soldiers"]. ''The Washington Post''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170719170354/https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/at-london-olympics-empty-seats-have-organizers-scrambling-giving-away-tickets-to-children-and-soldiers/2012/07/29/gJQA6YVBJX_story.html Archived] from the original on 19 July 2017.</ref> Dey follow IOC rules, people apply for tickets from de NOC of dema country of residence. Na European Union residents be able make dem apply for tickets insyd any EU country.<ref>Lynn, Guy (22 May 2012). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-18161743 "Ukrainian Olympic official 'willing to sell tickets to black market'"]. ''BBC News''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120607222537/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-18161743 Archived] from the original on 7 June 2012. Retrieved 8 June 2012.</ref> Insyd Great Britain, ticket prices range from £20 for chaw events to £2,012 for de most expensive seats for de opening ceremony. Na dem give sam free tickets to military personnel as part of de Tickets For Troops scheme,<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13758141 "Olympic tickets offered to UK Armed Forces members"]. ''BBC News''. 14 June 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110824064608/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13758141 Archived] from the original on 24 August 2011.</ref> as well as to survivors den families of those wey die during de 7 July 2005 London bombings.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13302220 "2012 Olympic tickets for 7/7 bomb attack victims"]. ''BBC News''. 6 May 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110719233157/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13302220 Archived] from the original on 19 July 2011.</ref> Initially, na people be able make dem apply for tickets via website from 15 March til 26 April 2011. Na der be huge demand for tickets, plus demand of more dan three times de number of tickets available.<ref>Bond, David (27 April 2011). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/13209306 "London 2012 Olympic ticket demand passes 20m"]. ''BBC News''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170806103645/http://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/13209306 Archived] from the original on 6 August 2017.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14008482 "750,000 Olympics tickets sold in 'second chance' round"]. ''BBC News''. 3 July 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110825091749/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14008482 Archived] from the original on 25 August 2011.</ref> For 11 May 2012 round of nearly one million "second chance" tickets go on sale over 10-day period between 23 June den 3 July 2011.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14066068 "Olympic tickets on sale in 'second chance' phase"]. ''BBC News''. 11 July 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110718201248/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14066068 Archived] from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 17 August 2011.</ref> Na about 1.7 million tickets be available for football den 600,000 give oda sports, wey dey include archery, field hockey, football, judo, boxing den volleyball. Na ten sports sell out by 8 am of de first day.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13918958 "2012 Hopefuls miss out on tickets"]. ''BBC News''. 26 June 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110830050722/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13918958 Archived] from the original on 30 August 2011.</ref> === Countdown === [[File:The_Olympic_Clock_in_Trafalgar_Square_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2762728.jpg|thumb|De Countdown Clock insyd Trafalgar Square]] During de closing ceremony of the 2008 Olympics, na dem formally hand over de Olympic Flag from de Mayor of Beijing to de Mayor of London. Na dis be follow by section dem dey highlight London.<ref>Eight minute wonder (17 June 2008). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2008/06/17/adrian_eight_minutes_feature.shtml "The BBC"]. BBC. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090110133956/http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2008/06/17/adrian_eight_minutes_feature.shtml Archived] from the original on 10 January 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2010.</ref> One month later, na dem raise de Olympic den Paralympic flags outsyd de London City Hall.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120113113104/http://legacy.london.gov.uk/view_press_release.jsp?releaseid=18998 "1948 Olympians and 2012 hopefuls join Beijing heroes as Olympic and Paralympic flags raised at City Hall"]. Legacy.london.gov.uk. 26 September 2008. Archived from [http://legacy.london.gov.uk/view_press_release.jsp?releaseid=18998 the original] on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na dem unveil countdown clock insyd Trafalgar Square, 500 days before de Games.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-12749912 "London 2012 countdown clock stops in Trafalgar Square"]. ''BBC News''. 15 March 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110318075539/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-12749912 Archived] from the original on 18 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.</ref><ref>Murray, Scott; Murrells, Katy (27 July 2011). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/london-2012-olympics-blog/2011/jul/27/london-2012-year-to-go "London 2012: The 'One Year To Go' Celebrations – as they happened"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170104081343/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/london-2012-olympics-blog/2011/jul/27/london-2012-year-to-go Archived] from the original on 4 January 2017.</ref> Na ebe two-sided clock plus de Paralympic countdown for de oda syd. De countdown to de start of de Olympics begin plus ceremony for de lighting of de Olympic flame insyd Olympia, Greece.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120510144844/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tournaments/london-olympics/Olympic-flame-lit-for-London-Games/articleshow/13079554.cms "Olympic flame lit for London Games"]. ''The Times Of India''. Archived from [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tournaments/london-olympics/Olympic-flame-lit-for-London-Games/articleshow/13079554.cms the original] on 10 May 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2012.</ref> === Security === De police lead de security operation (dem name am '''Operation Olympics''' by de Ministry of Defence), plus 10,000 officers available, support by 13,500 members of de British Armed Forces. Na dem deploy naval den air assets as part of de security operation, wey dey include ships situate insyd de Thames, Typhoon fighter jets den surface-to-air missiles;<ref>[https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm5801/cmselect/cmdfence/357/full-report.html "Manpower or mindset: Defence's contribution to the UK's pandemic response"]. ''publications.parliament.uk''. 25 March 2020. [https://web.archive.org/web/20211205222331/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm5801/cmselect/cmdfence/357/full-report.html Archived] from the original on 5 December 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2021. <q>'''Operation Olympics''' | 2012 | Wide-ranging support to delivery of the London Olympic [Games]</q></ref> na ebe de biggest security operation Britain face insyd decades. De cost of security increased from £282 million to £553 million, wey na de figure of 13,500 armed forces personnel be greater dan de number dem deploy for de time insyd Afghanistan.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16195861 "London 2012: 13,500 troops to provide Olympic security"]. ''BBC News''. 15 December 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111216022738/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16195861 Archived] from the original on 16 December 2011.</ref> De Metropolitan Police den de Royal Marines carry out security exercises for preparation give de Olympics for 19 January 2012, plus 50 marine police officers for rigid inflatables insyd den fast response boats, join by up to 100 military personnel den Royal Navy Lynx helicopter.<ref>Seida, Jim (19 January 2012). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120315020234/http://photoblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/01/19/10192015-metropolitan-police-and-the-royal-marines-perform-security-exercises-in-preparation-for-london-olympics "Metropolitan Police and the Royal Marines perform security exercises in preparation for London Olympics"]. ''msnbc.com''. Archived from [https://photoblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/01/19/10192015-metropolitan-police-and-the-royal-marines-perform-security-exercises-in-preparation-for-london-olympics the original] on 15 March 2012.</ref> De Ministry of Defence distribute leaflets to residents of de Lexington building insyd Bow, dey announce say na dem station missile system for de top of de water tower.<ref name=":3">Booth, Robert (29 April 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/apr/29/london-rooftops-missiles-olympic-games "London rooftops to carry missiles during Olympic Games"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113192000/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/apr/29/london-rooftops-missiles-olympic-games Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 29 April 2012.</ref><ref name=":4">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120429213246/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/news/9234544/London-Olympics-2012-MoD-rooftop-missile-base-plan-alarms-local-residents.html "London Olympics 2012: MoD rooftop missile base plan alarms local residents"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. London. 29 April 2012. Archived from [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/news/9234544/London-Olympics-2012-MoD-rooftop-missile-base-plan-alarms-local-residents.html the original] on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 29 April 2012.</ref> Dis cause concern to sam residents.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> De Ministry say e go probably use Starstreak missiles wey na site evaluations take place, buh dat no final decision take place.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> === Medals === [[File:USA_London_2012_Silver_Medal_Front.jpg|thumb|246x246px|Front of de Silver Medal win by de USA.]] Approximately de Royal Mint produce 4,700<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111025002237/http://www.royalmint.com/Corporate/media/London-2012-Olympic-games-victory-medals.aspx "London 2012 Olympic Games victory medals to be made by the Royal Mint"]. Royalmint.com. Archived from [http://www.royalmint.com/Corporate/media/London-2012-Olympic-games-victory-medals.aspx the original] on 25 October 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Olympic den Paralympic medals for Llantrisant.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-11989437 "London 2012 medals deal struck for Royal Mint in Llantrisant"]. ''BBC News''. 14 December 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120223050218/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-11989437 Archived] from the original on 23 February 2012.</ref> David Watkins (Olympics) den Lin Cheung (Paralympics) design dem.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-15475942 "London 2012: Olympic medals go into production in Wales"]. ''BBC News''. 27 October 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111228155844/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-15475942 Archived] from the original on 28 December 2011. Retrieved 4 July 2012.</ref> Na Rio Tinto wey komot sam mine insyd Salt Lake County, Utah insyd de U. S. donate 99% of de gold, silver den copper.<ref>Hollenhorst, John (13 June 2012). [http://www.ksl.com/?nid=148&sid=20827055 "Kennecott donating $7.3 million in gold, silver, bronze for Olympics"]. KSL.com. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120624071037/http://www.ksl.com/?nid=148&sid=20827055 Archived] from the original on 24 June 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2012.</ref> De 1% wey remain cam from Mongolian mine.<ref>[http://sg.news.yahoo.com/mongolia-goes-gold-london-medals-192955303--finance.html "Mongolia goes for gold with London medals – Yahoo! News Singapore"]. Sg.news.yahoo.com. 18 July 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20121024195417/http://sg.news.yahoo.com/mongolia-goes-gold-london-medals-192955303--finance.html Archived] from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 28 October 2012.</ref> Each medal dey weigh 375-400 g (13.2-14.1 oz), wey e get diameter of 85 mm (3.3 in) wey e be 7 mm (0.28 in) thick, wey dem engrave de sport den discipline for de rim top.<ref name=":5">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-18677289 "London 2012: Olympic medals locked in Tower"]. ''BBC News''. 2 July 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120704142244/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-18677289 Archived] from the original on 4 July 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012.</ref> De obverse, as be traditional, dey feature Nike, de Greek goddess of victory, wey dey step from de Panathinaiko Stadium wey host de first modern Olympic Games insyd 1896, plus Parthenon insyd de background; de reverse dey feature de Games logo, de River Thames den series of lines wey dey represent "the energy of athletes and a sense of pulling together".<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14291544 "London 2012: Olympic medals timeline"]. ''BBC News''. 26 July 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727171350/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14291544 Archived] from the original on 27 July 2011.</ref> Na dem tranfer de medals to de Tower of London vaults for 2 July 2012 for storage.<ref name=":5" /> Each gold medal be 92.5 percent silver den 1.34 percent gold, plus de remainder copper. De silver medal be 92.5 percent silver, plus de remainder copper. De bronze medal be made up of 97 percent copper, 2.5 percent zinc, den 0.5 per cent tin.<ref>DeMarco, Anthony (26 July 2012). [https://www.forbes.com/sites/anthonydemarco/2012/07/26/a-closer-look-at-the-olympic-gold-medal/ "London's Olympic Gold Medal Worth The Most In The History Of The Games"]. ''Forbes''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120729232146/http://www.forbes.com/sites/anthonydemarco/2012/07/26/a-closer-look-at-the-olympic-gold-medal/ Archived] from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.</ref> Na de value of de materials insyd de gold medal be about £410 (US$644), de silver about £210 (US$330), den se bronze about £3 (US$4.71) as of 30 July 2012.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120731232433/http://olympics.yardbarker.com/blog/olympics/article/how_much_is_a_medal_actually_worth_not_as_much_as_youd_think/11334214 "How much is a medal actually worth? Not as much as you'd think"]. ''Yardbarker.com''. 30 July 2012. Archived from [http://olympics.yardbarker.com/blog/olympics/article/how_much_is_a_medal_actually_worth_not_as_much_as_youd_think/11334214 the original] on 31 July 2012.</ref> === Torch relay === De Olympics torch relay run from 19 May to 27 July 2012, before de Games. Na dem develop plans give se relay insyd 2010–11, plus de torch-bearer selection process dem announce for 18 May 2011.<ref>Magnay, Jacquelin (17 May 2011). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110521045410/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/olympics/8518637/London-2012-Olympics-torch-relay-should-focus-on-youth-says-Locog.html "London 2012 torch relay should focus on youth"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. London. Archived from [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/olympics/8518637/London-2012-Olympics-torch-relay-should-focus-on-youth-says-Locog.html the original] on 21 May 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2011.</ref> Edward Barber den Jay Osgerby design de torch. For 18 May 2012 de Olympic flame arrive for RNAS Culdrose insyd Cornwall from Greece<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110608061845/http://www.london2012.com/olympic-torch-relay "The Olympic Torch Relay"]. London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games. 18 May 2011. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/olympic-torch-relay the original] on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 18 May 2011.</ref> for flight BA2012, operate by British Airways Airbus A319 dem name am "Firefly". De relay last 70 days, plus 66 evening celebrations den six island visits, wey dem involve sam 8,000 people wey dey carry de torch about 8,000 mi (12,875 km), wey dey start from Land's End insyd Cornwall.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13426353 "London 2012 Olympic torch relay route revealed"]. ''BBC News''. 18 May 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110518081518/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13426353 Archived] from the original on 18 May 2011. Retrieved 18 May 2011.</ref> De torch get three days outsyd de United Kingdom wen e visit de Isle of Man for 2 June, Dublin insyd Ireland, for 6 June,<ref>[http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/1208/breaking40.html "Dublin to host Olympic Torch"]. ''The Irish Times''. Dublin. Reuters. 8 December 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111211165912/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/1208/breaking40.html Archived] from the original on 11 December 2011.</ref> wey both Guernsey den Jersey for 15 July. De relay focus for National Heritage Sites, locations plus sporting significance, key sporting events, schools dem register plus de Get Set School Network, green spaces den biodiversity, Live Sites (city locations plus large screens), den festivals den oda events.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121030062212/http://london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/lcsg/docs/openmeetings/20091102/presentation3.pdf "London Culture and 2012 Open Meeting"] (PDF). Greater London Authority. Archived from [http://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/lcsg/docs/openmeetings/20091102/presentation3.pdf the original] (PDF) on 30 October 2012. Retrieved 19 May 2011.</ref> Na Dumfries den Galloway be de Region per insyd de whole of de United Kingdom wey get make de Olympic Torch pass thru am twice. Group of young athletes, dem nominate by retired Olympic athletes, run de torch around de stadium. Na dese torchbearers be Callum Airlie, Jordan Duckitt, Desiree Henry, Katie Kirk, Cameron MacRitchie, Aidan Reynolds, den Adelle Tracey. Togeda de torchbearers each light petal wey spread de fire to de 204 petals of de cauldron, wey dey represent de countries wey dem participate insyd de Games.<ref>Urquhart, Conal; Davies, Lizzy (28 July 2012). [http://www.guardian.co.uk/ "Olympic Torchbearers who lit cauldron kept it secret from parents"]. ''The Guardian''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120214064224/http://www.guardian.co.uk/ Archived] from the original on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2012.</ref> Na Thomas Heatherwick design de cauldron === Environmental policy === Na dem plan de Olympic Park make e incorporate 45 hectares of wildlife habitat, plus total of 525 bird boxes den 150 bat boxes. Na dem enhance local waterways den riverbanks as part of de process.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090309051828/http://www.london2012.com/news/archive/2009-02/new-biodiversity-plan-sets-out-future-for-olympic-park-wildlife.php "New biodiversity plan sets out future for Olympic Park wildlife"]. ''London 2012''. 27 February 2009. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/news/archive/2009-02/new-biodiversity-plan-sets-out-future-for-olympic-park-wildlife.php the original] on 9 March 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2009.</ref> Renewable energy sanso feature for de Olympics. Na dem originally plan make dem provide 20% of de energy give de Olympic Park den Village from renewable technologies; however, na dem achieve 9% per of am.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13034546 "London 2012 Olympics 'to miss renewable energy target'"]. ''BBC News''. 11 April 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110528023613/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13034546 Archived] from the original on 28 May 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2011.</ref> Proposals make dem meet de original target include large-scale on-site wind turbines den hydroelectric generators insyd de River Thames, buh na dem scrap dese plans for safety reasons.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10234665 "Olympic Games site wind turbine scrapped"]. ''BBC News''. 4 June 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110519213657/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10234665 Archived] from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2011.</ref> De focus subsequently move to make dem dey install solar panels for sam buildings top, den dey provide de opportunity make dem recover energy from waste. Wer na dem no fi reuse am anaa recycle am, food packaging for use for de Olympics— wey dey include fast-food wrappers, sandwich boxes den drink cartons—na de make am from compostable materials like starch den cellulose-based bioplastics. After use, na chaw of dese materials be suitable give anaerobic digestion (AD), wey dey allow dem make dem make dem into renewable energy.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110606000417/http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/news/compostable-bioplastics-set-for-big-win-at-london-olympics "Compostable bioplastics set for big win at London Olympics"]. ''NNFCC''. 31 May 2011. Archived from [http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/news/compostable-bioplastics-set-for-big-win-at-london-olympics the original] on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2011.</ref> Post-Games, na dem relocate buildings like de Water Polo Arena elsewhere. Na dem recycle building parts like roofing covers den membranes of different temporary venues via VinyLoop. Dis allow organisers make dem meet de standards of de Olympic Delivery Authority wey dey concern environmental protection. London 2012 inaugurate Olympic Games guidelines wey include de recycling of PVC, wich na dem use dem for temporary buildings such as de Basketball Arena den for de temporary parts of permanent venues such as de Olympic Stadium.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120827113019/http://www.london2012.com/news/articles/2009/5/london-2012-seeks-sustainable-solutions-for-temporary-ve-1243087.html "London 2012 seeks sustainable solutions for temporary venues"]. ''London2012''. 5 May 2009. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/news/articles/2009/5/london-2012-seeks-sustainable-solutions-for-temporary-ve-1243087.html the original] on 27 August 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2012.</ref> Insyd de Water Polo Arena, na dem make PVC roofing from recycled cushions make e provide insulation.<ref>[https://www.eurosport.com/olympics/water-polo-arena_sto3329059/story.shtml "Water Polo Arena"]. ''Eurosport''. 2 July 2012.</ref> Thru dis recycling process, na dem fulfil de Olympic Games PVC Policy; de policy dey state:<ref>[https://library.olympics.com/Default/doc/SYRACUSE/25798/policy-on-the-use-of-pvc-for-the-london-2012-olympic-and-paralympic-games-olympic-delivery-authority "Policy On The Use Of PVC For The London 2012 Olympic And Paralympic Games"]. ''library.olympics.com''. Olympic Delivery Authority. 2009. p. 4. Retrieved 30 June 2023.</ref> : Dem no assure wer London 2012 dey procure PVC for temporary usage anaa wer permanent usage, dem require make London 2012 ensure say der be take-back scheme wey dey offer closed-loop reuse system anaa mechanical recycling system for post-consumer waste. According to Kirsten Henson, Materials Manager for de London 2012 Olympic Park: "''The majority of temporary facilities created for the Olympic Games including the Aquatic centre temporary stands, basketball arena, Water Polo Arena, and the shooting facilities at the Royal Artillery Barracks, are essentially big tents. Basically, PVC stretched over lightweight steel frame. This design solution makes them efficient to install, reduces the need for any significant foundations and are, of course, reusable. We were challenged by the public around the use of PVC; but we considered it to be the right material for certain functions. We therefore challenged the PVC supply chain to have certain environmental performance criteria in place, including a take back and recycle scheme''."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130308122835/http://www.plasticseurope.org/information-centre/televised-newslinks.aspx "Televised Newslinks: Discussing the Sustainability Legacy of the London Olympic Park"]. ''PlasticsEurope.org''. 22 June 2012. Archived from [http://www.plasticseurope.org/information-centre/televised-newslinks.aspx the original] on 8 March 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2013.</ref> === Cultural Olympiad === [[File:Tower_Bridge_Olympic_Lighting,_London_-_July_2012.jpg|right|thumb|Na dem illuminate Tower Bridge plus de Olympic Rings insyd de week wey dey lead up to de opening ceremony.]] De Olympic Charter, de set of rules den guidelines give de organization of de Olympic Games den for make dem dey govern de Olympic Movement, dey state say <blockquote>LOCOG shall organise a programme of cultural events which must cover at least the entire period during which the Olympic Village is open.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Olympic%20Charter/Charter_en_2010.pdf "Olympic Charter"] (PDF). International Olympic Committee. 11 February 2010. p. 80. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110505101457/http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Olympic%20Charter/Charter_en_2010.pdf Archived] (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2011.</ref></blockquote> De Cultural Olympiad comprise chaw programmes, plus more dan 500 events spread over four years across de whole of de United Kingdom, den dey culminate insyd de London 2012 Festival.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120321172831/http://www.london2012.com/cultural-olympiad "Cultural Olympiad"]. London 2012. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/cultural-olympiad the original] on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 27 March 2012.</ref><ref>Brown, Mark (12 March 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2012/mar/12/cultural-olympiad-2012-critical-masses "Cultural Olympiad 2012 reaches the critical masses"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130829180955/http://www.theguardian.com/culture/2012/mar/12/cultural-olympiad-2012-critical-masses Archived] from the original on 29 August 2013. Retrieved 27 March 2012.</ref> === Opening ceremony === [[File:KOCIS_Korea_London_Olympics_TeamKorea_12_(7683500856).jpg|thumb|Fireworks for de opening ceremony]] Dem title "The Isles of Wonder", de opening ceremony begin for 21:00 British Summer Time (UTC+1) for 27 July insyd de Olympic Stadium.<ref>[http://blog.oup.com/2012/08/isles-of-wonder-bermuda-avalon-london-2012/ "London 2012 Olympics opening ceremony called 'The Isles of Wonder'"]. Olympics Medal Tally. 27 January 2012. [http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20120813181608/http://blog.oup.com/2012/08/isles-of-wonder-bermuda-avalon-london-2012/ Archived] from the original on 13 August 2012.</ref> Na Oscar-winning director Danny Boyle be artistic director wey Rick Smith of Underworld be musical director.<ref>[https://archive.today/20121216134401/http://www.underworldlive.com/news/underworld-announced-as-music-directors-for-the-opening-ceremony-of-the-2012-london-olympic-games "Underworld announced as Music Directors for the opening ceremony of the 2012 London Olympic Games"]. Underworld. n.d. Archived from [http://www.underworldlive.com/news/underworld-announced-as-music-directors-for-the-opening-ceremony-of-the-2012-london-olympic-games the original] on 16 December 2012.</ref> Na dem immediately see de opening ceremony as tremendous success, dem widely praise am as "masterpiece" den "a love letter to Britain".<ref>Dawson, Andy (28 July 2012). [https://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-reviews/bbcs-trevor-nelson-stumbles-but-danny-1177361 "Boyle Command Performance is hampered by not-so-clever Trevor"]. ''Daily Mirror''. Retrieved 31 July 2012.</ref><ref>Goldsmith, Harvey; Phillips, Arlene; Quantick, David; Brown, Mick; Beard, Mary (29 July 2012). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9434563/London-2012-the-experts-view-of-the-Olympic-opening-ceremony.html "London 2012: the experts' view of the Olympic opening ceremony"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. [https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9434563/London-2012-the-experts-view-of-the-Olympic-opening-ceremony.html Archived] from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2012.</ref> De principal sections of de artistic display represent Britain ein Industrial Revolution, National Health Service, literary heritage, popular music den culture, wey dem note dem for dema vibrant storytelling den use of music. Na Queen Elizabeth II, accompany by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh officially gbele de Games.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19008471 "Young athletes light London 2012 Olympic flame"]. ''BBC News''. 28 July 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193629/http://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/apr/02/london-2012-daniel-craig-olympics-bond Archived] from the original on 28 July 2012.</ref> Na dis be de second Olympic Games de Queen personally gbele, de first be insyd 1976 insyd Montreal, Canada. De ceremony feature short comic film wey dey star Daniel Craig as secret agent James Bond den de Queen as einself.<ref>Child, Ben (2 April 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/apr/02/london-2012-daniel-craig-olympics-bond "London 2012: Daniel Craig to open Olympics as James Bond"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193629/http://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/apr/02/london-2012-daniel-craig-olympics-bond Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 2 April 2012.</ref> Na der sanso be musical comedy item wey dey star Rowan Atkinson as Mr. Bean wey dey play along plus de London Symphony Orchestra.<ref>Shaw Roberts, Maddy (4 August 2021). [https://www.classicfm.com/artists/london-symphony-orchestra/rowan-atkinson-chariots-of-fire-sketch-2012-olympics/ "The iconic time Mr Bean played 'Chariots of Fire' with London Symphony Orchestra at the 2012 Olympics"]. ''Classic FM''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210919234352/https://www.classicfm.com/artists/london-symphony-orchestra/rowan-atkinson-chariots-of-fire-sketch-2012-olympics/ Archived] from the original on 19 September 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2023.</ref> Na dem widely ascribe dese to Britain ein sense of humour.<ref>[https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/london-2012-what-the-world-thought-1178468 "A "noisy, busy, witty, dizzying production": What the world thought of London 2012's opening ceremony"]. ''Daily Mirror''. 28 July 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2012.</ref> Live musical performers include Frank Turner, Dame Evelyn Glennie, Mike Oldfield, Dizzee Rascal, Arctic Monkeys, den Sir Paul McCartney wey perform "Hey Jude" as de closing act.<ref>Martin, Dan (6 June 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jun/06/paul-mccartney-london-olympics-ceremony "Paul McCartney to close London Olympics opening ceremony"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193635/http://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jun/06/paul-mccartney-london-olympics-ceremony Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 12 June 2012.</ref><ref>Hirst, Michael; Minard, Jenny; Jeavans, Christine (27 July 2012). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120727203543/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18906710 "London Olympic Games opening ceremony"]. ''BBC Sport''. Archived from [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18906710 the original] on 27 July 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.</ref> Broadcast live for BBC One top, de ceremony attract peak viewing audience of over 27 million insyd de UK.<ref>[http://www.barb.co.uk/whats-new/weekly-top-30 "Weekly Top 3 Programmes w/e 29 Jul 2012"]. ''BARB''. 10 August 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140919035351/http://www.barb.co.uk/whats-new/weekly-top-30 Archived] from the original on 19 September 2014.</ref> === Closing ceremony === Na dem hold de closing ceremony for 12 August. E feature flashback fiesta to British music plus The Who wey close de performance. De ceremony sanso include handover of de Olympic flag by Boris Johnson, Mayor of London, to Eduardo Paes, Mayor of Rio de Janeiro, de host city of de 2016 Summer Olympics.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120718061942/http://www.london2012.com/spectators/ceremonies/closing-ceremony/ "Closing Ceremony"]. London 2012. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/spectators/ceremonies/closing-ceremony/ the original] on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2012.</ref> Insyd ein closing address, Jacques Rogge describe de Games as "happy and glorious".<ref name=":6" /> == De Games == ===National Olympic Committees wey dey participate=== [[File:2012 Summer olympics team numbers.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.8|Number of athletes wey dey participate by country {| |300+ |100–299 |30–99 |10–29 |4–9 |1–3 |}]] [[File:2012 Summer Olympic games countries.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.8|Countries wey dey participate:<br /><span style="color:#00ff7f;">Green</span> = Na dem previously participate; <span style="color:#707070;">Grey</span> = Dey participate for first time; Yellow circle be host city (London)]] Around 10,500 athletes wey komot 206 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) take part,<ref name=":7" /> (85 countries acquire for least one medal: gold, silver anaa bronze) dey surpass de 1948 Summer Olympics insyd London den de 2002 Commonwealth Games insyd Manchester as de largest multi-sport event ever make dem hold insyd de United Kingdom.<ref>[https://archive.today/20120918203441/http://www.london2012.com/medals/medal-count/ "London 2012 Medal count"]. ''London2012.com''. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/medals/medal-count/ the original] on 18 September 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2013.</ref> Three athletes wey komot de Netherlands Antilles, wich wey na dem dissolve de territory insyd 2010 wey e lost ein recognition during 123rd IOC session dem hold during July 2011, den one athlete wey komot [[South Sudan]], wich na dem recognize dema NOC isydn 2015, dem participate as two independent athletes teams under de Olympic flag.<ref name="AHO">[http://www.olympic.org/ioc?articlenewsgroup=-1&articleid=133159 "Curtain comes down on 123rd IOC Session"]. IOC. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140606195922/http://www.olympic.org/ioc?articlenewsgroup=-1&articleid=133159 Archived] from the original on 6 June 2014. Retrieved 11 July 2011.</ref> {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" !National Olympic Committees wey dey participate |- | * Afghanistan (6) * Albania (9) * Algeria (38) * American Samoa (4) * Andorra (6) * Angola (33) * Antigua and Barbuda (4) * Argentina (137) * Armenia (24) * Aruba (4) * Australia (405) * Austria (70) * Azerbaijan (52) * Bahamas (21) * Bahrain (12) * Bangladesh (5) * Barbados (6) * Belarus (160) * Belgium (111) * Belize (3) * Benin (5) * Bermuda (8) * Bhutan (2) * Bolivia (5) * Bosnia and Herzegovina (6) * Botswana (4) * Brazil (248) * British Virgin Islands (2) * Brunei (3) * Bulgaria (63) * Burkina Faso (5) * Burundi (6) * Cambodia (6) * Cameroon (32) * Canada (273) * Cape Verde (3) * Cayman Islands (4) * Central African Republic (6) * Chad (2) * Chile (35) * China (376) * Colombia (101) * Comoros (3) * Republic of the Congo (7) * Democratic Republic of the Congo (4) * Cook Islands (8) * Costa Rica (11) * Croatia (107) * Cuba (109) * Cyprus (13) * Czech Republic (133) * Denmark (114) * Djibouti (4) * Dominica (2) * Dominican Republic (33) * Ecuador (36) * Egypt (109) * El Salvador (10) * Equatorial Guinea (2) * Eritrea (12) * Estonia (32) * Ethiopia (33) * Fiji (9) * Finland (56) * France (324) * Gabon (21) * The Gambia (2) * Georgia (34) * Germany (383) * Ghana (7) * Great Britain (530) '''(host)''' * Greece (102) * Grenada (8) * Guam (8) * Guatemala (19) * Guinea (4) * Guinea-Bissau (4) * Guyana (6) * Haiti (5) * Honduras (25) * Hong Kong (41) * Hungary (152) * Iceland (27) * Independent Olympic Athletes (4) * India (81) * Indonesia (22) * Iran (52) * Iraq (8) * Ireland (64) * Israel (37) * Italy (281) * Ivory Coast (9) * Jamaica (45) * Japan (291) * Jordan (9) * Kazakhstan (113) * Kenya (47) * Kiribati (3) * North Korea (52) * South Korea (250) * Kuwait (10) * Kyrgyzstan (14) * Laos (3) * Latvia (45) * Lebanon (10) * Lesotho (4) * Liberia (3) * Libya (4) * Liechtenstein (3) * Lithuania (62) * Luxembourg (9) * Macedonia (4) * Madagascar (7) * Malawi (3) * Malaysia (29) * Maldives (5) * Mali (6) * Malta (5) * Marshall Islands (4) * Mauritania (2) * Mauritius (11) * Mexico (99) * Federated States of Micronesia (6) * Moldova (20) * Monaco (6) * Mongolia (29) * Montenegro (33) * Morocco (63) * Mozambique (6) * Myanmar (6) * Namibia (9) * Nauru (2) * Nepal (5) * Netherlands (173) * New Zealand (178) * Nicaragua (6) * Niger (6) * Nigeria (49) * Norway (61) * Oman (3) * Pakistan (21) * Palau (5) * Palestine (5) * Panama (8) * Papua New Guinea (8) * Paraguay (8) * Peru (16) * Philippines (11) * Poland (210) * Portugal (76) * Puerto Rico (25) * Qatar (12) * Romania (105) * Russia (429) * Rwanda (7) * Saint Kitts and Nevis (4) * Saint Lucia (4) * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (3) * Samoa (8) * San Marino (4) * São Tomé and Príncipe (2) * Saudi Arabia (19) * Senegal (31) * Serbia (116) * Seychelles (6) * Sierra Leone (2) * Singapore (23) * Slovakia (47) * Slovenia (65) * Solomon Islands (4) * Somalia (2) * South Africa (124) * Spain (278) * Sri Lanka (7) * Sudan (6) * Suriname (5) * Swaziland (3) * Sweden (133) * Switzerland (98) * Syria (10) * Chinese Taipei (44) * Tajikistan (16) * Tanzania (6) * Thailand (37) * East Timor (2) * Togo (6) * Tonga (3) * Trinidad and Tobago (25) * Tunisia (83) * Turkey (112) * Turkmenistan (10) * Tuvalu (3) * Uganda (15) * Ukraine (230) * United Arab Emirates (26) * United States (530) * Uruguay (27) * Uzbekistan (53) * Vanuatu (5) * Venezuela (68) * Vietnam (18) * Virgin Islands (7) * Yemen (4) * Zambia (7) * Zimbabwe (7) |} ==== Number of athletes by National Olympic Committee ==== 10,768 athletes wey komot 204 NOCs {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" !IOC Letter Code !Country !Athletes |- |GBR |Great Britain |541 |- |USA |United States |530 |- |RUS |Russia |436 |- |AUS |Australia |410 |- |GER |Germany |392 |- |CHN |China |390 |- |FRA |France |330 |- |JPN |Japan |293 |- |ITA |Italy |284 |- |ESP |Spain |278 |- |CAN |Canada |277 |- |BRA |Brazil |258 |- |KOR |South Korea |245 |- |UKR |Ukraine |237 |- |POL |Poland |218 |- |NZL |New Zealand |184 |- |NED |Netherlands |175 |- |BLR |Belarus |165 |- |HUN |Hungary |157 |- |ARG |Argentina |137 |- |SWE |Sweden |134 |- |CZE |Czech Republic |133 |- |RSA |South Africa |125 |- |BEL |Belgium |115 |- |SRB |Serbia |115 |- |KAZ |Kazakhstan |114 |- |TUR |Turkey |114 |- |DEN |Denmark |113 |- |EGY |Egypt |113 |- |CUB |Cuba |110 |- |CRO |Croatia |108 |- |COL |Colombia |104 |- |GRE |Greece |103 |- |ROU |Romania |103 |- |MEX |Mexico |102 |- |SUI |Switzerland |102 |- |IND |India |83 |- |TUN |Tunisia |83 |- |POR |Portugal |77 |- |AUT |Austria |70 |- |VEN |Venezuela |70 |- |MAR |Morocco |67 |- |IRL |Ireland |66 |- |SLO |Slovenia |65 |- |NOR |Norway |64 |- |BUL |Bulgaria |63 |- |LTU |Lithuania |62 |- |FIN |Finland |55 |- |NGR |Nigeria |55 |- |UZB |Uzbekistan |54 |- |AZE |Azerbaijan |53 |- |IRI |Iran |53 |- |PRK |North Korea |51 |- |JAM |Jamaica |50 |- |KEN |Kenya |47 |- |SVK |Slovakia |47 |- |LAT |Latvia |46 |- |TPE |Chinese Taipei |44 |- |ALG |Algeria |42 |- |HKG |Hong Kong |42 |- |ISR |Israel |37 |- |THA |Thailand |37 |- |ECU |Ecuador |36 |- |CHI |Chile |35 |- |DOM |Dominican Republic |35 |- |ETH |Ethiopia |35 |- |GEO |Georgia |35 |- |ANG |Angola |34 |- |CMR |Cameroon |33 |- |EST |Estonia |33 |- |MNE |Montenegro |33 |- |SEN |Senegal |31 |- |MAS |Malaysia |30 |- |TRI |Trinidad and Tobago |30 |- |MGL |Mongolia |29 |- |URU |Uruguay |29 |- |HON |Honduras |27 |- |ISL |Iceland |27 |- |UAE |United Arab Emirates |26 |- |ARM |Armenia |25 |- |PUR |Puerto Rico |25 |- |BAH |Bahamas |24 |- |GAB |Gabon |24 |- |SIN |Singapore |23 |- |INA |Indonesia |22 |- |MDA |Moldova |22 |- |PAK |Pakistan |21 |- |GUA |Guatemala |19 |- |KSA |Saudi Arabia |19 |- |VIE |Vietnam |18 |- |PER |Peru |16 |- |TJK |Tajikistan |16 |- |UGA |Uganda |16 |- |KGZ |Kyrgyzstan |14 |- |CYP |Cyprus |13 |- |ALB |Albania |12 |- |BRN |Bahrain |12 |- |ERI |Eritrea |12 |- |QAT |Qatar |12 |- |CRC |Costa Rica |11 |- |KUW |Kuwait |11 |- |MRI |Mauritius |11 |- |PHI |Philippines |11 |- |CIV |Ivory Coast |10 |- |ESA |El Salvador |10 |- |GRN |Grenada |10 |- |LIB |Lebanon |10 |- |SYR |Syria |10 |- |TKM |Turkmenistan |10 |- |FIJ |Fiji |9 |- |GHA |Ghana |9 |- |JOR |Jordan |9 |- |LUX |Luxembourg |9 |- |NAM |Namibia |9 |- |BER |Bermuda |8 |- |COK |Cook Islands |8 |- |GUM |Guam |8 |- |IRQ |Iraq |8 |- |PAR |Paraguay |8 |- |PNG |Papua New Guinea |8 |- |SAM |Samoa |8 |- |CGO |Republic of the Congo |7 |- |ISV |Virgin Islands |7 |- |MAD |Madagascar |7 |- |PAN |Panama |7 |- |RWA |Rwanda |7 |- |SKN |Saint Kitts and Nevis |7 |- |SRI |Sri Lanka |7 |- |TAN |Tanzania |7 |- |ZAM |Zambia |7 |- |ZIM |Zimbabwe |7 |- |AFG |Afghanistan |6 |- |AND |Andorra |6 |- |BAR |Barbados |6 |- |BDI |Burundi |6 |- |BIH |Bosnia and Herzegovina |6 |- |BOL |Bolivia |6 |- |CAF |Central African Republic |6 |- |CAM |Cambodia |6 |- |DJI |Djibouti |6 |- |FSM |Federated States of Micronesia |6 |- |GUY |Guyana |6 |- |MLI |Mali |6 |- |MON |Monaco |6 |- |MOZ |Mozambique |6 |- |MYA |Myanmar |6 |- |NCA |Nicaragua |6 |- |NIG |Niger |6 |- |SEY |Seychelles |6 |- |SUD |Sudan |6 |- |TOG |Togo |6 |- |ANT |Antigua and Barbuda |5 |- |ASA |American Samoa |5 |- |BAN |Bangladesh |5 |- |BEN |Benin |5 |- |BUR |Burkina Faso |5 |- |CAY |Cayman Islands |5 |- |HAI |Haiti |5 |- |LBA |Libya |5 |- |MDV |Maldives |5 |- |MLT |Malta |5 |- |NEP |Nepal |5 |- |PLE |Palestine |5 |- |PLW |Palau |5 |- |SUR |Suriname |5 |- |VAN |Vanuatu |5 |- |ARU |Aruba |4 |- |BOT |Botswana |4 |- |COD |Democratic Republic of the Congo |4 |- |GBS |Guinea-Bissau |4 |- |GUI |Guinea |4 |- |IOA |Independent Olympic Athletes |4 |- |LBR |Liberia |4 |- |LCA |Saint Lucia |4 |- |LES |Lesotho |4 |- |MHL |Marshall Islands |4 |- |MKD |Macedonia |4 |- |OMA |Oman |4 |- |SMR |San Marino |4 |- |SOL |Solomon Islands |4 |- |YEM |Yemen |4 |- |BIZ |Belize |3 |- |BRU |Brunei |3 |- |CHA |Chad |3 |- |COM |Comoros |3 |- |CPV |Cape Verde |3 |- |KIR |Kiribati |3 |- |LAO |Laos |3 |- |LIE |Liechtenstein |3 |- |MAW |Malawi |3 |- |SWZ |Swaziland |3 |- |TGA |Tonga |3 |- |TUV |Tuvalu |3 |- |VIN |Saint Vincent and the Grenadines |3 |- |BHU |Bhutan |2 |- |DMA |Dominica |2 |- |GAM |The Gambia |2 |- |GEQ |Equatorial Guinea |2 |- |IVB |British Virgin Islands |2 |- |MTN |Mauritania |2 |- |NRU |Nauru |2 |- |SLE |Sierra Leone |2 |- |SOM |Somalia |2 |- |STP |São Tomé and Príncipe |2 |- |TLS |East Timor |2 |} ====National houses==== During de Games, sam countries den continents get "national house". Na dese temporary meeting places give supporters, athletes den oda followers locate thru out London.<ref name="nationalhouses">[https://web.archive.org/web/20150403164124/http://www.londonprepares.com/olympic-national-pavilions "2012 Olympic Country Houses"]. ''LondonPrepares.com''. Archived from [http://www.londonprepares.com/olympic-national-pavilions the original] on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.londontown.com/London/Olympic-National-Hospitality-Houses "Olympic National Hospitality Houses"]. ''LondonTown.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120630012140/http://www.londontown.com/London/Olympic-National-Hospitality-Houses Archived] from the original on 30 June 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2021.</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" !Nation !Location !Name |- |[[Africa|African nations]] |Kensington Gardens |- |Austria |Trinity House |- |Belgium |Inner Temple |- |Brazil |Somerset House |Casa Brasil |- |Canada |Canada House |- |China |The Waldorf Hilton |- |Croatia |Pelham Hotel, South Kensington |- |Czech Republic |Business Design Centre, Islington |- |Denmark |St Katherine Docks |- |France |Old Billingsgate |Club France |- |Georgia |Chelsea College of Art and Design (45 Millbank) |- |Germany |Museum of London Docklands |Deutsches Haus |- |Great Britain |Westfield Stratford City |- |Ireland |The Big Chill House, Kings Cross |- |Italy |Queen Elizabeth II Conference Centre |Casa Italia |- |Japan |Royal Aeronautical Society |- |Jamaica |The O2 |- |[[Kenya]] |East Thames Community Centre, Stratford |- |Korea |Royal Thames Yacht Club |- |Monaco |Haymarket |- |Netherlands |Alexandra Palace |Holland Heineken House |- |New Zealand |Granary Square, Kings Cross |Kiwi House |- |[[Nigeria]] |Theatre Royal Stratford East |- |Poland |Polish Social and Cultural Centre |- |Qatar |Institution of Engineering and Technology, Savoy Place |- |Romania |30 Pavilion Road, Knightsbridge |- |Russia |Perks Field, Kensington Palace |- |Slovakia |Institute of Directors |- |[[South Africa]] |Queen Elizabeth Hall |- |South Pacific |St Katharine Docks |- |Switzerland |Glazier's Hall |- |Trinidad & Tobago |Tricycle Theatre |- |United States |Royal College of Art |} === Sports === De 2012 Summer Olympics feature 26 different sports wey dey encompass 39 disciplines den 302 events. Insyd de list below, dem note de number of events insyd each discipline insyd parentheses. {| class="wikitable" !2012 Summer Olympics Sports Programme |- | {| class="wikitable" | * Aquatics ** Diving <small>(8)</small> ** Swimming <small>(34)</small> ** Synchronized swimming <small>(2)</small> ** Water polo <small>(2)</small> * Archery <small>(4)</small> * Athletics <small>(47)</small> * Badminton <small>(5)</small> * Basketball <small>(2)</small> * Boxing <small>(13)</small> | * Canoeing ** Sprint <small>(12)</small> ** Slalom <small>(4)</small> * Cycling <small>(competitors)</small> ** BMX <small>(2)</small> ** Mountain biking <small>(2)</small> ** Road <small>(4)</small> ** Track <small>(10)</small> * Equestrian ** Dressage <small>(2)</small> ** Eventing <small>(2)</small> ** Jumping <small>(2)</small> | * Fencing <small>(10)</small> * Field hockey <small>(2)</small> * Football <small>(2)</small> * Gymnastics ** Artistic <small>(14)</small> ** Rhythmic <small>(2)</small> ** Trampoline <small>(2)</small> * Handball <small>(2)</small> * Judo <small>(14)</small> * Modern pentathlon <small>(2)</small> * Rowing <small>(14)</small> * Sailing <small>(10)</small> | * Shooting <small>(15)</small> * Table tennis <small>(4)</small> * Taekwondo <small>(8)</small> * Tennis <small>(5)</small> * Triathlon <small>(2)</small> * Volleyball ** Volleyball <small>(2)</small> ** Beach volleyball <small>(2)</small> * Weightlifting <small>(15)</small> * Wrestling ** Freestyle <small>(11)</small> ** Greco-Roman <small>(7)</small> |} |} Na dem include women's boxing insyd de programme for de first time, wey 36 women compete insyd three weight classes. Na der be special dispensation for de shooting events, wich na go otherwise be illegal under UK gun law.<ref>Fraser, Andrew (19 August 2005). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/4162498.stm "Shooters seek handgun law change"]. ''BBC Sport''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120728033926/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/4162498.stm Archived] from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.</ref><ref>[https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section=oly&id=3478179 "British government relaxes gun laws on sport ahead of 2012 Olympics"]. ESPN. Associated Press. 8 July 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130729225442/http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/wire?section=oly&id=3478179 Archived] from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 30 July 2012.</ref> Insyd tennis, mixed doubles return to de Olympic programme for de first time since 1924.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120718215159/http://www.nbcolympics.com/tennis/event/mixed-doubles/index.html "Tennis: Mixed Doubles preview"]. ''NBCOlympics.com''. Archived from [http://www.nbcolympics.com/tennis/event/mixed-doubles/index.html the original] on 18 July 2012.</ref> London ein bid feature de same 28 sports wey na dem include insyd oda recent Summer Olympics, buh de IOC vote make dem drop baseball den softball from de 2012 Games just two days after na dem select London as de host city. Na der be appeal, buh de IOC vote make dem uphold de decision, wey na dem schedule de two sports make dem discontinue dem after dema last appearance for de [[2008 Summer Olympics|2008 Olympics]].<ref name=":8">Michaelis, Vicki (8 July 2005). [https://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2005-07-08-baseball-softball-dropped_x.htm "Baseball, softball bumped from Olympics"]. ''USA Today''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080709024822/http://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2005-07-08-baseball-softball-dropped_x.htm Archived] from the original on 9 July 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.</ref> De IOC then vote for whether anaa make dem no replace dem; na dem consider karate, squash, golf, roller sports den rugby sevens. Na karate den squash be de two final nominees, buh neither receive enough votes make dem reach de required two-thirds majority.<ref name=":8" /> Although na dem eliminate formal demonstration sports after de 1992 Summer Olympics,<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/past/innovations_uk.asp?OLGT=1&OLGY=1996 "International Olympic Committee – Olympic Games"]. Olympic.org. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080912061938/http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/past/innovations_uk.asp?OLGT=1&OLGY=1996 Archived] from the original on 12 September 2008. Retrieved 12 October 2008.</ref> dem fi run special tournaments for non-Olympic sports during de Games, such as de Wushu tournament for de 2008 Summer Olympics.<ref name=":9">De Sarkar, Dipankar (6 August 2008). [http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/world-news/london-legislator-heads-for-beijing-wants-cricket-in-2012-olympics_10080420.html "London legislator heads for Beijing, wants cricket in 2012 Olympics"]. Thaindian News. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080815225429/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/world-news/london-legislator-heads-for-beijing-wants-cricket-in-2012-olympics_10080420.html Archived] from the original on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2008.</ref> Na attempts dey make dem run Twenty20 cricket<ref name=":9" /> den netball<ref>[http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/35597/Gordon-Brown-backs-Olympic-netball "Gordon Brown backs Olympic netball"]. ''Daily Express''. UK. 20 February 2008. [https://archive.today/20080928201036/http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/35597/Gordon-Brown-backs-Olympic-netball Archived] from the original on 28 September 2008. Retrieved 10 September 2008.</ref> tournaments alongsyd de 2012 Games, buh na neither campaign be successful. === Calendar === Na dem release de final official schedule for 15 February 2011.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/london_2012/9397378.stm "London 2012 Olympic Games schedule released"]. ''BBC Sport''. 15 February 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111012033641/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/london_2012/9397378.stm Archived] from the original on 12 October 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2011.</ref> :''All times den dates dey use British Summer Time (UTC+1)'' <div align=center> {|class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:90%; position:relative; width:75%;" |- |style="width:2.5em; background-color:#00cc33; text-align:center;"|'''OC'''||Opening ceremony |style="width:2.5em; background-color:#3399ff; text-align:center;"|●||Event competitions |style="width:2.5em; background-color:#ffcc00; text-align:center;"|'''1'''||Gold medal events |style="width:2.5em; background-color:#FF8888; text-align:center;"|'''CC'''||Closing ceremony |} {|class="wikitable sortable sticky-header-multi" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:90%; line-height:1.25em; width:75%; text-align:center;" |- !class="unsortable" style="width:18%;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"|July/August 2012 !class="unsortable" colspan="8" |July !class="unsortable" colspan="11"|August !class="unsortable" style="width:6%;" rowspan="2"|Events |- !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|25th<br />Wed !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|26th<br />Thu !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|27th<br />Fri !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|28th<br />Sat !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|29th<br />Sun !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|30th<br />Mon !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|31st<br />Tue !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|1st<br />Wed !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|2nd<br />Thu !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|3rd<br />Fri !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|4th<br />Sat !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|5th<br />Sun !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|6th<br />Mon !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|7th<br />Tue !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|8th<br />Wed !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|9th<br />Thu !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|10th<br />Fri !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|11th<br />Sat !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|12th<br />Sun |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan="2"|[[File:Olympic Rings Icon.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Ceremonies||||||style="background-color:#00cc33;"|'''OC'''||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||style="background-color:#FF8888;"|'''CC'''||— |- | rowspan="5" |Aquatics | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Diving pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Diving <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--28-->| <!--29-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--30-->| <!--31-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--1-->| <!--2-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |'''●''' <!--6-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--7-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |'''●''' <!--8-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--9-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--10-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--11-->! | | |- | style="text-align:left;" |Marathon swimming <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--9-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''46''' |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Swimming pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Swimming <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!--28-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!--29-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''5''' <!--30-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!--31-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''5''' <!--1-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!--2-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!--3-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!--4-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | | |- |Synchronized swimming | | | ! | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ! |- |style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Water polo pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Water polo <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | | |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Archery pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Archery <!--24-->| <!--25-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--29-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''4''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Athletics pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Athletics <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''5''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--5-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--6-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''5''' <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''5''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''5''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''8''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''9''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | |'''47''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Badminton pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Badminton <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--5-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''5''' |- | style="text-align:left;" |Basketball |style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Basketball pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Basketball <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->| <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Boxing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Boxing <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->| <!--6-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--11-->! | |'''13''' |- | rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |Canoeing | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Canoeing (slalom) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Slalom <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--28-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--29-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--30-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--31-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--1-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--2-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--3-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--4-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--5-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | | |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Canoeing (flatwater) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Sprint <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--7-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--8-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!--9-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!--10-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!--11-->! | |'''16''' |- | rowspan="4" style="text-align:left;" |Cycling | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Cycling (road) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Road cycling <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--4-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | | |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Cycling (track) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Track cycling <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--6-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--7-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--8-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--9-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--10-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--11-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' | |'''18''' |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Cycling (BMX) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] BMX <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--31-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--1-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--2-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | | |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Cycling (mountain biking) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Mountain biking <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--29-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | | |- | style="text-align:left;" |Equestrian |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Fencing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Fencing <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--28-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--29-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--30-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--31-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--1-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''12''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Field hockey pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Field hockey <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--12 -->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Football pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Football <!--24-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--25-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->| <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->| <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->| <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->| <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Golf pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Golf <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" rowspan=3 |Gymnastics |style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Gymnastics (artistic) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Artistic <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--30-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--31-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--1-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--2-->| <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--5-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''14''' |- |style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Gymnastics (rhythmic) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Rhythmic <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Gymnastics (trampoline) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Trampoline <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Handball pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Handball <!--24-->| <!--25-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->| <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Judo pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Judo <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--28-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--29-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--30-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--31-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--1-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''15''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Modern pentathlon pictogram (pre-2025).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Modern pentathlon <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Rowing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Rowing <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--1-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''14''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Sailing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Sailing <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''10''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Shooting pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Shooting <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--28-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--29-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--30-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--31-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--1-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--5-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''15''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Skateboarding pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Skateboarding <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--29-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''4''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Sport climbing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Sport climbing <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->! | |'''4''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Surfing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Surfing <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|<!--style="background-color:#3399ff;"|●--> <!--31-->|<!--style="background-color:#3399ff;"|●--> <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->| <!--3-->|<!--style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2'''--> <!--4-->| <!--5-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Table tennis pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Table tennis <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->! | |'''5''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Taekwondo pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Taekwondo <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--11-->! | |'''8''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Tennis pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Tennis <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''5''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Triathlon pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Triathlon <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''3''' |- |style="text-align:left;" rowspan=2 |Volleyball |style="text-align:left;"|Beach volleyball <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Volleyball (indoor) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Indoor Volleyball <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Weightlifting pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Weightlifting <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | |'''10''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Wrestling pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Wrestling <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' | |'''18''' |- !colspan=2 |Daily medal events !! colspan="3" | 0!! 12 !! 14 !! 15 !! 20 !! 18 !! 22 !! 25 !! 23 !! 18 !! 21 !! 16 !! 22 !! 17 !! 32 !! 15 !! 13 !! rowspan=2 |302 |- !colspan=2 |Cumulative total !! colspan="3" | 0!! 12 !! 26 !! 53 !! 73 !! 91 !! 113 !! 138 !! 161 !! 179 !! 200 !! 216 !! 238 !! 216 !! 277 !! 287 !! 302 |- !colspan=2 rowspan=3 |July/August 2012 |- !style="width:4%;" |25th<br />Wed !style="width:4%;" |26th<br />Thu !style="width:4%;" |27th<br />Fri !style="width:4%;" |28th<br />Sat !style="width:4%;" |29th<br />Sun !style="width:4%;" |30th<br />Mon !style="width:4%;" |31st<br />Tue !style="width:4%;" |1st<br />Wed !style="width:4%;" |2nd<br />Thu !style="width:4%;" |3rd<br />Fri !style="width:4%;" |4th<br />Sat !style="width:4%;" |5th<br />Sun !style="width:4%;" |6th<br />Mon !style="width:4%;" |7th<br />Tue !style="width:4%;" |8th<br />Wed !style="width:4%;" |9th<br />Thu !style="width:4%;" |10th<br />Fri !style="width:4%;" |11th<br />Sat !style="width:4%;" |12th<br />Sun !rowspan=2 |Total events |- !colspan=8 |July !colspan=11 |August |} </div> === Records === [[File:Mo_Farah_and_Usain_Bolt_2012_Olympics_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Mo Farah (left) plus Usain Bolt (right), wey dey demonstrate one anoda ein famous gestures (de "Lightning Bolt" den "Mobot")]] Dese Olympic Games result insyd 32 world records insyd eight sports. Na dem set de largest number of records insyd swimming, for eight. China, Great Britain den de United States set de most records, plus five each. == Medal table == Total of 85 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) win medals, 54 of those countries win at least one gold medal. Seven NOCs win dema first ever Olympic medal: Bahrain (gold),<ref>[https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/london-2012/results/athletics/1500m-women "London 2012, Athletics, 1500m Women, Results"]. ''olympics.com''. 7 March 2019. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160518015822/http://www.olympic.org/olympic-results/london-2012/athletics/1500m-w Archived] from the original on 18 May 2016. Retrieved 28 October 2017.</ref> [[Botswana]] (silver),<ref>Beaumont, Mark (4 February 2014). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-queens-baton-relay-26035470 "Queen's Baton Relay: Nijel Amos, building on Olympic success"]. ''BBC News''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210411000739/http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-queens-baton-relay-26035470 Archived] from the original on 11 April 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2021.</ref> Cyprus (silver),<ref>[https://olympics.com/en/news/cyprus-celebrates-first-olympic-medal-as-kontides-claims-silver "Cyprus celebrates first Olympic medal as Kontides claims silver"]. ''olympics.com''. 31 March 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220103140820/https://olympics.com/en/news/cyprus-celebrates-first-olympic-medal-as-kontides-claims-silver Archived] from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2023.</ref> [[Gabon]] (silver),<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130610054353/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/huff-wires/20120811/oly-tae-men-s-over-80k/ "Molfetta wins Olympic gold in men's plus-80K"]. ''Huffington Post''. 11 August 2012. Archived from [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/huff-wires/20120811/oly-tae-men-s-over-80k/ the original] on 10 June 2013.</ref> Grenada (gold),<ref>Fordyce, Tom (6 August 2012). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18909277 "Grenada's Kirani James wins Olympic 400m gold"]. ''BBC Sport''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120809003248/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18909277 Archived] from the original on 9 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.</ref> Guatemala (silver),<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120806182827/http://asia.eurosport.com/athletics/olympic-games-london/2012/chen-wins-20km-walk_sto3375063/story-london.shtml "Chen wins Olympic 20km walk, history for Guatemala"]. ''Eurosport Asia''. Reuters. 5 August 2012. Archived from [http://asia.eurosport.com/athletics/olympic-games-london/2012/chen-wins-20km-walk_sto3375063/story-london.shtml the original] on 6 August 2012.</ref> den Montenegro (silver).<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18912978 "Olympics handball: Norway beat Montenegro to women's gold"]. ''BBC Sport''. 11 August 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120812083720/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18912978 Archived] from the original on 12 August 2012.</ref> De United States fini for de top of de table, dem win 48 gold medals den total of 104 medals. China fini second plus 38 gold medals den 91 medals overall, wey hosts Great Britain cam insyd third place, dem win 29 gold medals den 65 medals overall insyd dema best performance since London host ein first Summer Olympics insyd 1908, dey push Russia—wey win 18 gold medals den 65 medals for total, after doping redistributions (initially 24 gold den 82 total)—into fourth place. ; Key  ‡   Changes in medal standings (see subpage)  *   Host nation (Great Britain) {| class="wikitable sortable" |+2012 Summer Olympics medal table<ref>[https://www.olympedia.org/editions/54 "2012 Summer Olympics Overview"]. ''olympedia.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201006124741/https://www.olympedia.org/editions/54 Archived] from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2019.</ref> !Rank !<abbr>NOC</abbr> !Gold !Silver !Bronze !Total |- |1 !United States‡ |48 |26 |30 |104 |- |2 !China‡ |39 |31 |22 |92 |- |3 !Great Britain*‡ |29 |18 |18 |65 |- |4 !Russia‡ |18 |21 |26 |65 |- |5 !South Korea‡ |13 |9 |9 |31 |- |6 !Germany‡ |11 |20 |13 |44 |- |7 !France‡ |11 |11 |13 |35 |- |8 !Australia‡ |8 |15 |12 |35 |- |9 !Italy |8 |9 |11 |28 |- |10 !Hungary‡ |8 |4 |6 |18 |- |11–86 |Remaining NOCs |110 |141 |192 |443 |- ! colspan="2" |Totals (86 entries) !303 !305 !352 !960 |} === Podium sweeps === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Date !Sport !Event !NOC !Gold !Silver !Bronze |- |28 July |Fencing |Women's foil |Italy |Elisa Di Francisca |Arianna Errigo |Valentina Vezzali |- |9 August |Athletics |Men's 200 metres |Jamaica |Usain Bolt |Yohan Blake |Warren Weir |- |11 August |Athletics |Women's 20 kilometres walk<ref>[https://www.worldathletics.org/results/olympic-games/2012/the-xxx-olympic-games-6999193/women/20-kilometres-race-walk/final/result#resultheader "20 Kilometres Race Walk women"]. ''World Athletics''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200922072309/https://worldathletics.org/results/olympic-games/2012/the-xxx-olympic-games-6999193/women/20-kilometres-race-walk/final/result Archived] from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2022.</ref> |China |Qieyang Shenjie |Liu Hong |Lü Xiuzhi |} == References == <references /> == Read further == * Jaworska, Sylvia; Hunt, Sally (2017). [http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/56337/1/Intersections%20of%20Gender%20Nation%20and%20Race_resub_to%20GaL_revised%20220216.pdf "Intersections and differentiations: a corpus-assisted discourse study of gender representations in the British press before, during and after the London Olympics 2012"] (PDF). ''Gender and Language''. '''11''' (3): 336–364. doi:[[doi:10.1558/genl.28858|10.1558/genl.28858]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190427094422/http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/56337/1/Intersections%20of%20Gender%20Nation%20and%20Race_resub_to%20GaL_revised%20220216.pdf Archived] (PDF) from the original on 27 April 2019. * Mallon, Bill (18 January 2019). [https://web.archive.org/web/20240827050758/https://olympstats.com/2019/01/18/an-update-on-london-2012-doping-positives/ "An Update On London 2012 Doping Positives"]. ''OlympStats''. * Mallon, Bill (18 January 2019). [https://olympstats.com/2019/01/18/all-olympic-doping-positives-the-count-by-games/ "All Olympic Doping Positives – The Count By Games"]. ''OlympStats''. * Pamment, James. "'Putting the GREAT Back into Britain': National Identity, Public-Private Collaboration & Transfers of Brand Equity in 2012's Global Promotional Campaign," ''British Journal of Politics & International Relations'' (2015) 17#2 pp 260–283. * Surowiec, Pawel. and Philip Long. "Hybridity and Soft Power Statecraft: The 'GREAT' Campaign." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 31:1 (2020): 1–28. [https://hdiplo.org/to/AR989 online review] https://doi.org/10.1080/09592296.2020.1721092 '''Official reports''' * LOCOG, ed. (2013). ''[https://library.olympics.com/Default/digital-viewer/c-37734 Volume 1: Summary of the bid preparation]''. London 2012 Olympic Games: The Official Report. London: LOCOG. * Knight, Tom; Ruscoe, Sybil (2012). ''[https://library.olympics.com/Default/digital-viewer/c-37734 Volume 2: London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games: the Official Commemorative Book]''. London 2012 Olympic Games: The Official Report. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-119-97314-0|978-1-119-97314-0]]</bdi>. OL [[openlibrary:works/OL24283202W|24283202W]]. * LOCOG, ed. (2013). ''[https://library.olympics.com/Default/digital-viewer/c-37734 Volume 3: Summary of Olympic Games preparations]''. London 2012 Olympic Games: The Official Report. London: LOCOG. == External links == '''2012 Summer Olympics''' at Wikipedia ein sisto projects * [[commons:Category:2012_Summer_Olympics|Media]] from Commons * [[wikinews:Olympics_organisers_insist_London_win_in_2012_ballot_was_fair|News]] from Wikinews * [[wikivoyage:London_2012|Travel information]] from Wikivoyage * [[wikidata:Q8577|Data]] from Wikidata '''Official''' * [https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/london-2012 "London 2012"]. ''Olympics.com''. International Olympic Committee. * [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/olympics-2012 2012 Summer Olympics] collected news and commentary at ''The Guardian'' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130703111256/http://www.2012.nbcolympics.com/ 2012 London Olympics at ''NBC''] at de Wayback Machine (archived 3 July 2013) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100914000517/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/london-olympics-business/ London Olympics Business at ''The Telegraph''] at de Wayback Machine (archived 14 September 2010) {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="3" |Summer Olympics |- | rowspan="1" |Precede by [[2008 Summer Olympics|Beijing]] | rowspan="1" |'''XXX Olympiad''' '''London''' 2012 | rowspan="1" |Succeed by Rio de Janeiro |} [[Category:2012 Summer Olympics]] [[Category:Olympic Games insyd de United Kingdom]] [[Category:Summer Olympics insyd London]] [[Category:Summer Olympics by year]] [[Category:2012 insyd British sport]] [[Category:2012 insyd multi-sport events]] [[Category:2012 sports events insyd London]] [[Category:August 2012 sports events insyd de United Kingdom]] [[Category:July 2012 sports events insyd de United Kingdom]] t8ll46tpw1a28k28and7as1icxi0yvv 0 27202 100264 100159 2026-06-05T14:24:38Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added heading 100264 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 2g25b1ccyaatok4jbuvwbxgem4dpy0l 100265 100264 2026-06-05T14:25:52Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added subheading 100265 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == === Groundwater === == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] oh379zqd7ywhm2zixxvtvmce64s3uzh 100266 100265 2026-06-05T14:29:17Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100266 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 7mctwdy7dw96b9kvlq1euqccdokqwxc 100269 100266 2026-06-05T14:30:40Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100269 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 48b4h4wwkebciwia60oc5zwtnj9kzi6 100270 100269 2026-06-05T14:34:33Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added databox 100270 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] m2eakwjsaguifwl7ot7j1m8wgup3xn8 100271 100270 2026-06-05T14:35:47Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100271 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow. Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 7fv76mh4kb41rawu7j3xu9yya86f0i3 100272 100271 2026-06-05T14:37:15Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100272 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] gkn866h6pw7z119j3uj7oto01kpgdjh 100274 100272 2026-06-05T14:39:01Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citations 100274 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] lyjn0c07uon1pg733cuwi3xucav9lkf 100276 100274 2026-06-05T14:40:30Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content and citation 100276 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Pipe water still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] aoxgftzga1pn650ekkdyq74ewyu9uvo 100277 100276 2026-06-05T14:41:20Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100277 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Pipe water still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] rq3d75ndkckpe879osd94906xffnwl7 100278 100277 2026-06-05T14:43:41Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added link 100278 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 7by9djsu2kosth92e8pwpryhivu4v0d 100280 100278 2026-06-05T14:45:19Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100280 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 9ka76iha072mefk4gcalcs4uunkcr4u 100282 100280 2026-06-05T14:46:16Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100282 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 9fvpdnmzgoli9o0o6krrbfykxjreo1f 100285 100282 2026-06-05T14:49:09Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100285 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 8mf2f7j1cw6a3xi16y5nqyryukqzz50 100288 100285 2026-06-05T14:53:04Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100288 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] nxiwp8kqm5dsp4cldxwr8unnh0h6bmu 100290 100288 2026-06-05T14:53:56Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added subheading 100290 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 91m1bm1ev9diuhkgjh5a9evmvt2vq5b 100291 100290 2026-06-05T14:55:22Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100291 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] owc4exjq7jk88quo4v5qdqo7ylq4w5c 100292 100291 2026-06-05T14:56:28Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100292 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 726d7r32rqm3ev8p11mmy6edkrdwcuh 100293 100292 2026-06-05T14:57:33Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100293 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] mn4tsx8iyyj4vtihi2on9dnmx2u2wg3 100294 100293 2026-06-05T14:58:26Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100294 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 875p8db7nmjb9t1n0ttoebf11iizeep 100295 100294 2026-06-05T14:59:14Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100295 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] o9xz12kbnqo1caolgjfh67gkt4s05zd 100296 100295 2026-06-05T15:00:26Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100296 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] scb4cu96n270lbin48ddsfkrulymh27 100297 100296 2026-06-05T15:02:42Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100297 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 21wbnp2w1r1z2z8kkumg6nf3faum76c 100298 100297 2026-06-05T15:03:28Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100298 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] j7sf5fzq2m7iok4c0xjylr31x93wzt0 100300 100298 2026-06-05T15:04:56Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added subheading 100300 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 9jwo7ya9u1kc4cyli2ut2wfvphwln1w 100301 100300 2026-06-05T15:06:40Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content and link 100301 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Further information:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] q7j2ibix3o87zvuse7pammb72yge5fz 100302 100301 2026-06-05T15:08:27Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 changed some content 100302 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] i0e9qym25azyu3om4r619dwzfzzxj15 100303 100302 2026-06-05T15:09:15Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100303 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] pzpgx4b507aqnazcupwk449lpkbirwk 100304 100303 2026-06-05T15:10:08Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100304 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] irv900ro7c4gmo7t22nzrrqt7429n64 100305 100304 2026-06-05T15:11:57Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100305 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] cugo14qie9p6fkdzxqwoh9tqrz0n2iu 100306 100305 2026-06-05T15:13:30Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100306 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] b6q7dm1csdoiyatostoy7x4z7ssv1uf 100307 100306 2026-06-05T15:14:17Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100307 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] a154x2t6wpu3uge8s1kkmayytxh6jy9 100308 100307 2026-06-05T15:15:38Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100308 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] leu4mptv0vf8ywoxhhz8njswpo7g2zv 100309 100308 2026-06-05T15:17:51Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100309 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 0dtozpektdwgbt5os68rq1vayb865vq 100310 100309 2026-06-05T15:19:07Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100310 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 2qaljfo26yqhoyp0pkli3qpn1dugnbk 100311 100310 2026-06-05T15:20:11Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100311 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] jx64j3c5sovjqx42bqaz35twcvzgw27 100312 100311 2026-06-05T15:21:23Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100312 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] ezmibd05f6wea5ldbhz0in836jsbb9y 100313 100312 2026-06-05T15:29:21Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100313 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] ffw389dbp1n0h0rh5pxrchb6sce3yag 100314 100313 2026-06-05T15:30:46Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100314 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] i7x8tqm1o8c38h88kmk1bb6gernxww3 100315 100314 2026-06-05T15:32:27Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100315 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 78qvmhgdx9z4g07ztz14n1db2j6cjde 100316 100315 2026-06-05T15:34:44Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100316 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the Lake Victoria Basin. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] o9atpf3r9pwsaaxog6t9gzc5tta0kf4 100317 100316 2026-06-05T15:47:43Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation and link 100317 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] ftwbu3twz5kehc50ps9t6xhm5gc0y9c 100318 100317 2026-06-05T15:52:52Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content and link 100318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dacc82i0zk5rnlwkl7t75crl5xf9n3a 100319 100318 2026-06-05T16:01:46Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 /* Surface water */ 100319 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 00t5tcm0jtqm6k2xxwupgqpzlckfe1x 100320 100319 2026-06-05T16:30:30Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100320 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] bs6ux3r52oau9xvwrvc3h7egohovdcb 100321 100320 2026-06-05T16:59:54Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100321 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] t9s7xjuyrtvutndr5izuotqur26etsp 100400 100321 2026-06-06T09:28:20Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100400 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] f9lk31hy9qfzgtvelrlee2mfd201mc0 100401 100400 2026-06-06T09:29:10Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100401 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 2iuped2yryygd3fb9wzaheyrvr3d5bz 100402 100401 2026-06-06T09:30:11Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100402 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] ig2xiqyjjera2xvul791niniyinsgel 100403 100402 2026-06-06T09:31:25Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100403 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 9cfwjb60p8sptihuupifj17xuzkk7kv 100404 100403 2026-06-06T09:34:35Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100404 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 486bz9ogy97vba8yo86zd9sxjocpgpw 100405 100404 2026-06-06T09:36:07Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citations 100405 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] j4u92s3wwozm0k01njqvqejql46qoa6 100406 100405 2026-06-06T09:39:38Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100406 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] amk7efkoalxn5l48yuyqd854oaj8dke 100407 100406 2026-06-06T09:40:52Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citations 100407 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] nkdzvu529uorozeblx575wy25dfa98g 100408 100407 2026-06-06T09:42:15Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100408 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 7w7v2xfcmbldsaov9vx6vzes5a0uexv 100409 100408 2026-06-06T09:43:04Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100409 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] n4aanewowb1qt57gln3vl4vwnocyx65 100410 100409 2026-06-06T09:44:33Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100410 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] j9qzo1pgmnr7zc7551dsrrzjav2xt02 100411 100410 2026-06-06T09:47:51Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100411 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 4wa6v0u2yhzc6fuorr5kmu2gtz363rl 100412 100411 2026-06-06T09:49:13Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100412 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] jv2o98bimqmtovgf696yqkjwshdpeoq 100413 100412 2026-06-06T09:50:24Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100413 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] j7au3t7or7ti5z9cbownms7mlix4h0w 100414 100413 2026-06-06T09:51:36Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100414 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] oaw1pe4jz6rosjf5114tr1lghhioe9f 100415 100414 2026-06-06T09:52:52Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100415 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 55an7x8rfvmx6m0omh7ka48jr6v2gt2 100416 100415 2026-06-06T09:53:38Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100416 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] madch0ewbu0m1t0ju67nz29qtkgbuqm 100417 100416 2026-06-06T09:54:41Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100417 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] f9suywusl5w5xum7xxb1m7h3xmic2ns 100418 100417 2026-06-06T09:55:31Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100418 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] iiqva7k65ua29a8d4vdefnm0y3mz96b 100419 100418 2026-06-06T09:57:06Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100419 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] pklbdtkuu8ur9g0xn5bktn4flrjof80 100420 100419 2026-06-06T09:58:26Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100420 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 7ctt96usawqbsm445trsyc9r0ilxdk3 100421 100420 2026-06-06T09:59:34Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added sub-heading 100421 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === Water-related gender inequality === == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 7xd681j178qkqlvixj1ls0bdyhf5d33 100422 100421 2026-06-06T10:01:12Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100422 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === Water-related gender inequality === For sub-Saharan Africa, getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural Zimbabwe find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 85aw9xy620rw2kyqgrculpk87o4ix3p 100423 100422 2026-06-06T10:03:01Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100423 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For sub-Saharan Africa, getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural Zimbabwe find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] ebwlmi8h4t01cikrn16kb9tw306jj0i 100424 100423 2026-06-06T10:04:50Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added links 100424 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 0mt8ams8vfam5n0zxs2nnkeb5a095h7 100425 100424 2026-06-06T10:06:11Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100425 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 2tm99gjexvjt0hi5kimm5160k28bzg9 100426 100425 2026-06-06T10:07:11Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100426 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 2j9q8iz9sxcw3ejwm0q3til2ocapw0y 100427 100426 2026-06-06T10:12:10Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100427 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 4kysl3r4mj2368vrbitfuctwud1ueby 100428 100427 2026-06-06T10:13:31Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100428 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" /> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] f5e0pjxy968dnqivxje13i8j72d6jll 100429 100428 2026-06-06T10:15:22Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100429 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] fcbv5rm68syc7ezzgkb83y0mlgom0qr 100430 100429 2026-06-06T10:17:35Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100430 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] lv9kt68lr9rk5mwc3dreb33vyb2z5ze 100431 100430 2026-06-06T10:18:46Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100431 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 8dt6cnt19vx62cp1t3quot5hr2h1jnt 100432 100431 2026-06-06T10:19:51Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added heading 100432 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] ivtsza1i01u7a7fw6js8b1bk4odqt7y 100433 100432 2026-06-06T10:20:56Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added sub-heading 100433 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 253wtuwmfni9oysxpt6sv2f28uwocdi 100434 100433 2026-06-06T10:22:21Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added image databox 100434 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] j2ogsnyd1o7pw8icrrqwk25juegq6ne 100435 100434 2026-06-06T10:28:18Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added content 100435 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions: == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 1843cscv58njtqq1jrhqq56ar976qj4 100436 100435 2026-06-06T10:30:18Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100436 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] ssefullr7xrljnrbfswwnwsq4ppofwx 100437 100436 2026-06-06T10:31:40Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 100437 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the Millennium Development Goals wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 5pmmwqrx08drsm9wk46w8stskomnxsk 100438 100437 2026-06-06T10:34:54Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added link 100438 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] rj6pt2rya1pg1o7k2rizxdes1v7rk3e 100439 100438 2026-06-06T10:35:47Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 made some changes 100439 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] g7w95w3qls8gdzp84ljt9u6sy61kb3l 100440 100439 2026-06-06T10:36:50Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 100440 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.ib-net.org The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] lyjckfvnjdqe9t1z6wsqkth7djgvzsx 0 27213 100396 100102 2026-06-05T22:09:35Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 100396 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} A '''flood''' be overflow of water (anaa sometimes oda fluids) wey cover land wey normally dey dry.<ref>MSN Encarta Dictionary, [http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861612277 Flood] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110204203836/http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/features/dictionary/DictionaryResults.aspx?refid=1861612277 |date=2011-02-04 }}, Retrieved on 2006-12-28, on 2009-10-31</ref> For de sense of "flowing water", dem sanso fi use de word for de inflow of de tide. Floods be important issue for agriculture, civil engineering den public health. Human activities wey dey change de environment often dey increase how severe floods go be den how often dem go happen. Examples of dese human changes include land use changes like deforestation den removal of wetlands, changes for waterways, anaa flood control measures such as levees. Global environmental problems too dey affect de causes of floods, especially [[climate change]], wey dey cause stronger water cycle activity den sea level rise.<ref>Seneviratne, S.I., X. Zhang, M. Adnan, W. Badi, C. Dereczynski, A. Di Luca, S. Ghosh, I. Iskandar, J. Kossin, S. Lewis, F. Otto, I. Pinto, M. Satoh, S.M. Vicente-Serrano, M. Wehner, and B. Zhou, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter11.pdf Chapter 11: Weather and Climate Extreme Events in a Changing Climate]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/ Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1513–1766, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.013.</ref> For example, [[climate change]] dey make extreme weather events happen more often den dem dey become stronger too.<ref name=":1">{{cite report |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/21852/chapter/7 |title=Attribution of Extreme Weather Events in the Context of Climate Change |publisher=The National Academies Press |doi=10.17226/21852 |pages=127–136 |isbn=978-0-309-38094-2 |access-date=2020-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215232008/https://www.nap.edu/read/21852/chapter/7 |archive-date=2022-02-15 |url-status=live |year=2016 |place=Washington, DC|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Dis one dey lead to stronger floods den increase de risk of flooding.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hirabayashi|first1=Yukiko|last2=Mahendran|first2=Roobavannan|last3=Koirala|first3=Sujan|last4=Konoshima|first4=Lisako|last5=Yamazaki|first5=Dai|last6=Watanabe|first6=Satoshi|last7=Kim|first7=Hyungjun|last8=Kanae|first8=Shinjiro|date=September 2013|title=Global flood risk under climate change|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate1911/|journal=Nature Climate Change|language=en|volume=3|issue=9|pages=816–821|doi=10.1038/nclimate1911|bibcode=2013NatCC...3..816H|issn=1758-6798|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=How climate change is making record-breaking floods the new normal|url=https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/how-climate-change-making-record-breaking-floods-new-normal|website=United Nations Environmental Program|date=3 March 2020}}</ref> Natural types of floods include river flooding, groundwater flooding, coastal flooding den urban flooding, wey some people dey call flash flooding. Tidal flooding fit include elements of both river den coastal flooding processes for estuary areas. There be also intentional flooding of land wey otherwise for remain dry. Dis one fit happen for agricultural, military, or river management purposes. For example, agricultural flooding fit happen when dem dey prepare paddy fields for growing semi-aquatic rice for plenty countries. Flooding fit happen when water overflow from water bodies such as rivers, lakes, seas, anaa oceans. For such cases, de water dey pass over anaa break levees, causing some of de water to escape from ein normal boundaries.<ref>Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000) [http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=flood1 Flood] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070824054504/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=flood1 |date=2007-08-24 }}, Retrieved on 2009-01-09</ref> Flooding fit also happen because rainwater gather on ground wey already soak with water. Dem dey call dis kind flood ''areal flood''. De size of a lake or any oda water body naturally fit change because of seasonal changes for [[precipitation]] den melting snow. However, dem no dey consider dese changes in size as floods unless dem cause damage to property anaa drown domestic animals. Floods sanso fi happen for rivers when de amount of water wey dey flow pass de capacity of de river channel, especially for bends anaa meanders of de waterway. Floods often dey cause damage to houses den businesses if dem buildings dey inside de natural flood plains of rivers. People fit avoid river flooding damage if dem move go live far from rivers. However, for plenty countries, people traditionally dey live den work near rivers because de land for there usually dey flat den fertile. Besides, rivers dey provide easy transportation den access to trade den industry. Flooding fit damage property den also cause secondary effects. For de short term, e fit increase de spread of waterborne diseases den vector-borne diseases, such as diseases wey mosquitoes dey transmit. Flooding fit also make residents leave dia homes for long periods of time or permanently.<ref>{{Cite web|title=WHO {{!}} Flooding and communicable diseases fact sheet|url=https://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/ems/flood_cds/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041231191549/http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/ems/flood_cds/en/|archive-date=December 31, 2004|access-date=2021-03-28|website=WHO}}</ref> Floods be one important area of study for hydrology den hydraulic engineering. Large number of people for de world dey live close to major coastlines,<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Neumann |first1=Barbara |last2=Vafeidis |first2=Athanasios T. |last3=Zimmermann |first3=Juliane |last4=Nicholls |first4=Robert J. |date=2015-03-11 |title=Future Coastal Population Growth and Exposure to Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Flooding - A Global Assessment |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=3 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1018571N |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0118571 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4367969 |pmid=25760037 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0118571}}</ref> while plenty major cities den farming areas too dey near floodplains.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=2020-11-24 |title=Flood Risk Management in Canada {{!}} Research report |url=https://www.genevaassociation.org/research-topics/climate-change-and-emerging-environmental-topics/flood-risk-management-canada |access-date=2021-10-29 |website=Geneva Association |language=en}}</ref> Because of changing climatic conditions, de risk of coastal den river flooding dey increase significantly.<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal |last1=Dieperink |first1=C. |last2=Hegger |first2=D. L. T. |last3=Bakker |first3=M. H. N. |last4=Kundzewicz |first4=Z. W. |last5=Green |first5=C. |last6=Driessen |first6=P. P. J. |date=2016-10-01 |title=Recurrent Governance Challenges in the Implementation and Alignment of Flood Risk Management Strategies: a Review |journal=Water Resources Management |language=en |volume=30 |issue=13 |pages=4467–4481 |bibcode=2016WatRM..30.4467D |doi=10.1007/s11269-016-1491-7 |issn=1573-1650 |s2cid=54676896 |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Types == [[File:Katrina-new-orleans-flooding3-2005.jpg|thumb|View of flooded New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina]] [[File:Rapid_Creek_flooding_1.jpg|thumb|Flooding of a creek because of heavy monsoon rain den high tide for Darwin, Northern Territory, [[Australia]]]] [[File:Jeddah_Flood_-_King_Abdullah_Street.jpg|thumb|Flood for [[Jeddah]], covering King Abdullah Street for [[Saudi Arabia]]]] [[File:Overland_flooding_near_Georgetown,_Minnesota,_in_the_Red_River_Valley_of_the_North.jpg|thumb|Overland flooding near Georgetown, Minnesota, for de Red River Valley of de North]] === Areal flooding === [[File:House_surrounded_by_flood_Ilmajoki_Finland.jpg|thumb|For spring season, floods be common for Ostrobothnia, one flat area for [[Finland]]. House wey flood surround for Ilmajoki, South Ostrobothnia.]] Floods fit happen for flat or low-lying areas when rainwater or melted snow dey come more quickly than de ground fit absorb am or than de water fit flow away. De extra water gather for one place, sometimes reaching dangerous levels. Surface soil fit become fully soaked with water, wey go stop further infiltration, especially for places where de water table dey near de surface, such as a floodplain, or during heavy rainfall from one storm or a series of storms. Infiltration too dey very slow or almost impossible through frozen ground, rock, concrete, paved surfaces, or roofs. Areal flooding usually start for flat areas like floodplains den local depressions wey no connect to any stream channel, because de speed of overland flow depend on de slope of de land. Endorheic basins fit experience areal flooding during periods when rainfall pass evaporation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Myrtle |title=Fact Sheet |date=2000 |chapter=Ground-water flooding in glacial terrain of southern Puget Sound, Washington |doi=10.3133/fs11100 |ref=MJones |access-date=2015-07-23 |chapter-url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/fs11100}}</ref> === River flooding === [[File:January 27 2019 Baron River Flooding, Cairns.jpg|thumb|left|January 27 Baron River flooding, Cairns]] Flood fit happen for all types of river den stream channels, from small ephemeral streams for humid areas, to normally-dry channels for arid regions, go reach big rivers like de Amazon. When overland flow happen for farm land, e fit cause muddy flood where sediments dey carried plus de runoff as suspended material anaa bed load. Local flooding fit increase because of blockage for drainage, like landslides, ice, debris, anaa beaver dams. Slow rising floods normally dey happen for big rivers wey get large catchment areas. De increase for water flow fit come from long rain, fast snowmelt, monsoon rains, anaa tropical cyclones. But big rivers too fit experience fast flooding if de area be dry climate, because dem fit get large basin but small river channel, den rainfall fit be very heavy for small part of de basin. For very flat areas like de Red River Valley of the North for Minnesota, North Dakota, den Manitoba, mixed type of river den areal flooding fit happen, wey people dey call am "overland flooding". Dis one different from "overland flow" wey mean surface runoff. De Red River Valley be former glacial lakebed wey Lake Agassiz create, den for 550 miles river course, e drop only 236 feet, meaning say de slope very small. For dis kind flat land, spring snowmelt no dey happen same time everywhere. If snowfall heavy den snow melt fast, water fit push out from tributary rivers, move overland, then join another river far downstream anaa even enter another stream completely. Overland flooding fit be very dangerous because e no dey easy to predict, e fit happen suddenly, den e fit travel far distance for flat land. Fast flooding events wey dey include flash floods dey happen more for small rivers, steep valleys, rivers wey flow over hard rock, anaa normally-dry channels. De cause fit be heavy thunderstorm rain anaa sudden release of water from dam, landslide, anaa glacier. For one case, flash flood kill eight people for waterfall area insyd narrow canyon wen water flow jump from about {{convert|50|to|1500|ft3/s|sigfig=2}} insyd just one minute.<ref name="Hjalmarson">{{cite journal|last1=Hjalmarson|first1=W. Hjalmar|date=December 1984|title=Flash Flood in Tanque Verde Creek, Tucson, Arizona|journal=Journal of Hydraulic Engineering|volume=110|issue=12|pages=1841–1852|doi=10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1984)110:12(1841)|bibcode=1984JHydE.110.1841H }}</ref> Two more floods happen for same place within one week, but nobody dey there those days. De deadly flood come from thunderstorm wey happen for part of drainage basin, where steep bare rock slope dey den thin soil already full plus water. Flash floods be very common for normally-dry channels inside arid areas, wey dem dey call arroyos for southwest [[United States]]. For dis kind place, first flood water wey arrive dey lose strength secof e dey soak into sandy river bed. So de front of de flood dey move slow pass de water behind. Secof dis, de flood become faster as e dey move downstream until soil soaking no matter again den flow rate become very strong. Dis one dey help people take precautions den give warning ahead of time so dem fit prepare for flooding conditions.<ref>{{cite web |date=2013-04-30 |title=Flood Warnings |url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/floods/58417.aspx |access-date=2013-06-17 |publisher=Environment Agency}}</ref> For example, farmers fit move dema animals comot from low-lying areas, den utility services fit arrange emergency plans to reroute services if e become necessary. Emergency services too fit make sure say dem get enough resources ready before time so dem fit respond quickly when emergencies happen. People sanso fi evacuate areas wey flood go affect. To make flood forecast for waterways more accurate, e dey important to get long history data wey link stream flows to past rainfall events.<ref>{{cite web |title=Australia rainfall and river conditions |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/australia/flood |access-date=2013-06-17 |publisher=Bom.gov.au}}</ref> If you combine dis historical data plus real-time information about water levels in catchment areas—like space left insyd reservoirs, groundwater levels, den how much soil den underground water systems don already soak (saturation of aquifers)—then flood prediction go become more accurate. Radar rainfall estimates den normal weather forecasting methods too be important part of good flood forecasting. For places wey good data dey available, dem fit predict how high flood go rise den wen e go reach certain places plus good accuracy den enough early warning. Flood forecast output usually show de maximum expected water level den de estimated time wey e go reach key points along de river.<ref name="Advanced Hydrologic Prediction System">{{Cite journal |last1=Connelly |first1=Brian A |last2=Braatz |first2=Dean T |last3=Halquist |first3=John B |last4=Deweese |first4=Michael M |last5=Larson |first5=Lee |last6=Ingram |first6=John J |year=1999 |title=Advanced Hydrologic Prediction System |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=104 |issue=D16 |pages=19, 655 |bibcode=1999JGR...10419655C |doi=10.1029/1999JD900051 |doi-access=free}}</ref> E sanso fit help calculate de statistical return period of flood. For many developed countries, urban areas wey dey at risk of flooding dey protected against wat dem call 100-year flood—dat one mean flood wey get about 63% chance (1 − 0.99¹⁰⁰, anaa roughly 1 − 1/''e'') to happen insyd any 100-year period. According to de U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) Northeast River Forecast Center (RFC) for Taunton, Massachusetts, one simple rule for urban flood forecasting be say e need at least {{convert|1|in|mm}} of rain within about one hour to cause serious water gathering on non-absorbent surfaces. Chaw NWS RFCs sanso dey issue Flash Flood Guidance and Headwater Guidance, wey show de amount of rain wey fit cause flash flooding anaa flooding for big water basins.<ref name="Flash Flood Guidance">{{cite web |title=FFG |url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/rfcshare/ffg.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130304094148/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/rfcshare/ffg.php |archive-date=4 March 2013 |access-date=29 January 2013}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Sister project links|flood}}{{Authority control}} [[Category:Flood| ]] [[Category:Water]] [[Category:Bodies of water]] [[Category:Hydrology]] [[Category:Meteorological phenomena]] [[Category:Weather hazards]] [[Category:Natural disasters]] 5sptu7jvkbxujzqra3blyagya6ifnjc 0 27223 100246 100236 2026-06-05T13:42:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100246 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] == References == 9c0o5xpva1ug0it4dm7r2eg0xrplh1f 100247 100246 2026-06-05T13:43:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100247 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] == References == 6br1lyxv9797oenmg1jxdot5egqo1qe 100249 100247 2026-06-05T13:45:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100249 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]] == References == 0468ckktj7hlx5li1yif28zgc6o2ycr 100251 100249 2026-06-05T13:49:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100251 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]]. == References == 1clsdbulud5cp29jqgsdgdzg5g2cs1g 100252 100251 2026-06-05T13:50:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100252 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> == References == 5cfa44avv31c99bhhw3oc9wjtrrdf6s 100253 100252 2026-06-05T13:51:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100253 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids. == References == 5pl3tpp9cshtroudc5yotlcsa3bl7xp 100254 100253 2026-06-05T13:52:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100254 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> == References == rzr6rmznh5q2rlvqql1yr185jf9vyxn 100255 100254 2026-06-05T13:52:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100255 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake. == References == nu1uyw9uy9x8gualjn8on0c0jed7vlo 100256 100255 2026-06-05T13:53:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100256 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> == References == dpyb2byqhs90qn5nfzdyrxb7u1jjog2 100257 100256 2026-06-05T13:55:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100257 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'') == References == m8thq4blsd1m7k1efr5axfrwxeh0owd 100258 100257 2026-06-05T13:56:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100258 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> == References == mqkrmc7qvfgro7czbz6932kmwyf73gv 100259 100258 2026-06-05T13:57:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100259 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref> == References == cbbod8xkaqo8k1z9s0c3vys1saya20x 100260 100259 2026-06-05T13:58:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100260 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> == References == huyqp67yz6mts1ulmulab5gh5pcthla 100261 100260 2026-06-05T13:59:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100261 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'. == References == lwe3ku64dhe9gjap3bl03cpl1lk60kt 100262 100261 2026-06-05T14:00:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100262 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> == References == ejeyxg3i67dsr2u1ruhwvfui8fgjalw 100342 100262 2026-06-05T20:31:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100342 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. == References == lwck3bjc5kdha64fg6a9tm8tmfnx947 100343 100342 2026-06-05T20:32:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100343 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. == References == tozj5w6ibpagsnmxpw2d03wgnsj9zpo 100344 100343 2026-06-05T20:33:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100344 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. == References == rv3mazskb8cobg0b4jwajquhompgetq 100345 100344 2026-06-05T20:34:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100345 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. == References == i860x902v9o8ldrg12lxtobcy92ygph 100346 100345 2026-06-05T20:36:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100346 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. == References == 4et37tlapao46cndqvj5hvkkscolowf 100347 100346 2026-06-05T20:37:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100347 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. == References == lio8et34vjt4gxhls84g79k9ztsn4xd 100348 100347 2026-06-05T20:37:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100348 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. == References == se8aoacp7r0uzs50dygh3n7reb8mt4x 100349 100348 2026-06-05T20:38:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100349 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. == References == 1vwhuw9qa87r9em8ypb2b00b4it4531 100350 100349 2026-06-05T20:39:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100350 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. == References == bnoqvmc6troy3jo7m88ss212bv9c8hj 100351 100350 2026-06-05T20:40:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100351 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. == References == hrbxf2588feb2vewbixkk1gt8zy0f9v 100352 100351 2026-06-05T20:41:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100352 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. == References == 9dwsrztj4gugawnqf2ghyifctuqnkbd 100353 100352 2026-06-05T20:42:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100353 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. == References == lb5xaz7wsbfbi1jw003wuhuv0o9thux 100354 100353 2026-06-05T20:43:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100354 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. == References == swrzp5vm7ya2yhgevu1xihr7469lngd 100355 100354 2026-06-05T20:45:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100355 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). == References == p0uceqcs98gm9zfjkeoz62kiwtz5dzh 100356 100355 2026-06-05T20:46:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100356 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. == References == mrnwhjs5m6qet71u58q9z2yact2yyj7 100357 100356 2026-06-05T20:46:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100357 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. == References == jtvlmhiwwg6wc3hlclxbsug7imy3pqd 100358 100357 2026-06-05T20:47:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100358 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. == References == dqosfkhdaa0r5ncbx1ip03xffld85zp 100359 100358 2026-06-05T20:48:00Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100359 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). == References == lbn6sowjnluqpwn991u5nvltau8mxy0 100360 100359 2026-06-05T20:48:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100360 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year. Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == karnlj8cdyswjuloec196gfcxa9e9zj 100361 100360 2026-06-05T20:49:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100361 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart. An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == 9603xczpdtpgnsbf9qt8juispc57v2g 100362 100361 2026-06-05T20:50:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100362 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == 6urb6cdxauobu4e8a4he9421p959cxn 100363 100362 2026-06-05T20:51:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100363 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful. At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == 1fj37xgqe1ljv9p73uup4lhfzaebrnt 100364 100363 2026-06-05T20:52:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100364 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd. Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == p7jvu7myvil7spaep71o16vmvrw60hj 100365 100364 2026-06-05T20:54:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100365 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''. Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == fc6fwnez2f10vyxu2rbrodolffp2kv6 100366 100365 2026-06-05T20:54:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100366 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == bm5zk3gjfvl3020fxv2l50ruvz3lcn6 100367 100366 2026-06-05T20:55:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100367 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd. Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == i3029g2mqlk67u0w6vepe4j1u0532vw 100368 100367 2026-06-05T20:55:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100368 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == 4dfc4jxy2g25rqzfp8nof5v0r7mfs6x 100369 100368 2026-06-05T20:57:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100369 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton. De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == bvlvdmfrzh9ur4kvtfos86a3goc1lpy 100370 100369 2026-06-05T20:59:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100370 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == s04e1xw8u6qe78mtauwsv2efr4gd028 100371 100370 2026-06-05T21:00:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100371 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == fhh0f5l1ftmj03ypth9id6dvcexi6ew 100372 100371 2026-06-05T21:00:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100372 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹). A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == a4ruz93ckd8y5a9jo3zhdtk4i0xanj1 100373 100372 2026-06-05T21:01:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100373 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection. De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == dfjemxi7i89c25n2h55z1z3vxgztsiy 100374 100373 2026-06-05T21:02:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100374 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu", although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == kdp19ahnvajc3k7wnx5d3io0guvq3g3 100375 100374 2026-06-05T21:03:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100375 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]''). Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == rp3f7d4bkgrrvfwctn3iiifzhsy931m 100376 100375 2026-06-05T21:03:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100376 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs. == References == tsvv8m6yb1a1jywp3x8xm18bbx6v55h 100377 100376 2026-06-05T21:04:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100377 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /> == References == b1e17vocssax9s0uyh5wo22gpbm8s63 100378 100377 2026-06-05T21:05:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100378 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> == References == mquzx4zdwk8h8mf0y6bwafeb01eg5xf 100379 100378 2026-06-05T21:09:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100379 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. == References == h90wi65ok6u98qw5eeeodgp5wssc0vq 100380 100379 2026-06-05T21:09:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100380 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd, wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. == References == 0ttf6t79ydw3umfn3fdkxrl3qao6cy0 100381 100380 2026-06-05T21:10:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100381 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. == References == lwopmpnvfqqn26qiz74euzg7t5y84wf 100382 100381 2026-06-05T21:11:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100382 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top. == References == gam9d2zmjyfoitrgu8efjn6ohk82ozd 100383 100382 2026-06-05T21:11:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100383 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}</ref> == References == kjclrl0kkcnb6skg0mfueerf798s920 100384 100383 2026-06-05T21:12:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100384 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2022-02-02 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref> == References == 1aukw8i26hqg4py30z9bkxnpmjjw80x 100385 100384 2026-06-05T21:13:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100385 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2022-02-02 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref> == Islands == * [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]] (part of [[:en:Idjwi_Territory|Idjwi Territory]], [[:en:South_Kivu|South Kivu Province]]) == References == 724n0pjwph1engj2iqw8lu6z7ktjfsf 100386 100385 2026-06-05T21:14:22Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100386 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2022-02-02 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref> == Islands == * [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]] (part of [[:en:Idjwi_Territory|Idjwi Territory]], [[:en:South_Kivu|South Kivu Province]]) * [[:en:Nyamunini|Nyamunini]] (dem sanso know am Napoleon Island) == References == 59zplurzgfxk6e24f56s0z37syjl19n 100387 100386 2026-06-05T21:14:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100387 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2022-02-02 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref> == Islands == * [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]] (part of [[:en:Idjwi_Territory|Idjwi Territory]], [[:en:South_Kivu|South Kivu Province]]) * [[:en:Nyamunini|Nyamunini]] (dem sanso know am Napoleon Island) * [[:en:Amahoro_Island|Amahoro]] == References == 0vifv7vpvzxsj0ijr7lfb93xocyggll 100388 100387 2026-06-05T21:15:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100388 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2022-02-02 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref> == Islands == * [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]] (part of [[:en:Idjwi_Territory|Idjwi Territory]], [[:en:South_Kivu|South Kivu Province]]) * [[:en:Nyamunini|Nyamunini]] (dem sanso know am Napoleon Island) * [[:en:Amahoro_Island|Amahoro]] * [[:en:Iwawa|Iwawa]] == References == 7ey7fdx8s7u35fr1cfs44rygx8x0o7x 100389 100388 2026-06-05T21:17:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100389 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2022-02-02 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref> == Islands == * [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]] (part of [[:en:Idjwi_Territory|Idjwi Territory]], [[:en:South_Kivu|South Kivu Province]]) * [[:en:Nyamunini|Nyamunini]] (dem sanso know am Napoleon Island) * [[:en:Amahoro_Island|Amahoro]] * [[:en:Iwawa|Iwawa]] == Gallery == <gallery widths="175" heights="120"> File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|Lake Kivu from Sake, Goma, D R Congo File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|Lake Kivu plus [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de background insyd, Congo File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|Lake Kivu dey separate Bukavu (For de foreground insyd) den Cyangugu (For de background insyd) as dem see from Tumbimbi. </gallery> == References == j2jz7y90n4bz72dr040r75y4y2gh562 100390 100389 2026-06-05T21:18:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100390 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2022-02-02 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref> == Islands == * [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]] (part of [[:en:Idjwi_Territory|Idjwi Territory]], [[:en:South_Kivu|South Kivu Province]]) * [[:en:Nyamunini|Nyamunini]] (dem sanso know am Napoleon Island) * [[:en:Amahoro_Island|Amahoro]] * [[:en:Iwawa|Iwawa]] == Gallery == <gallery widths="175" heights="120"> File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|Lake Kivu from Sake, Goma, D R Congo File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|Lake Kivu plus [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de background insyd, Congo File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|Lake Kivu dey separate Bukavu (For de foreground insyd) den Cyangugu (For de background insyd) as dem see from Tumbimbi. </gallery> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Gasmeth_Energy_Gas_Works|Gasmeth Energy Gas Works]] == References == 4qn804b6qu0sag66mh27l9narb4xoem 100391 100390 2026-06-05T21:19:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100391 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2022-02-02 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref> == Islands == * [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]] (part of [[:en:Idjwi_Territory|Idjwi Territory]], [[:en:South_Kivu|South Kivu Province]]) * [[:en:Nyamunini|Nyamunini]] (dem sanso know am Napoleon Island) * [[:en:Amahoro_Island|Amahoro]] * [[:en:Iwawa|Iwawa]] == Gallery == <gallery widths="175" heights="120"> File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|Lake Kivu from Sake, Goma, D R Congo File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|Lake Kivu plus [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de background insyd, Congo File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|Lake Kivu dey separate Bukavu (For de foreground insyd) den Cyangugu (For de background insyd) as dem see from Tumbimbi. </gallery> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Gasmeth_Energy_Gas_Works|Gasmeth Energy Gas Works]] * [[:en:Limnic_eruption|Limnic eruption]] == References == l3hys1k8bhv6c5a07i3b4s840ok414s 100392 100391 2026-06-05T21:19:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100392 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2022-02-02 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref> == Islands == * [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]] (part of [[:en:Idjwi_Territory|Idjwi Territory]], [[:en:South_Kivu|South Kivu Province]]) * [[:en:Nyamunini|Nyamunini]] (dem sanso know am Napoleon Island) * [[:en:Amahoro_Island|Amahoro]] * [[:en:Iwawa|Iwawa]] == Gallery == <gallery widths="175" heights="120"> File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|Lake Kivu from Sake, Goma, D R Congo File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|Lake Kivu plus [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de background insyd, Congo File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|Lake Kivu dey separate Bukavu (For de foreground insyd) den Cyangugu (For de background insyd) as dem see from Tumbimbi. </gallery> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Gasmeth_Energy_Gas_Works|Gasmeth Energy Gas Works]] * [[:en:Limnic_eruption|Limnic eruption]] * [[:en:Mazuku|Mazuku]] == References == pdpk1xvvgmomqwprvl7hkuk18px503x 100393 100392 2026-06-05T21:20:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100393 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2022-02-02 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref> == Islands == * [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]] (part of [[:en:Idjwi_Territory|Idjwi Territory]], [[:en:South_Kivu|South Kivu Province]]) * [[:en:Nyamunini|Nyamunini]] (dem sanso know am Napoleon Island) * [[:en:Amahoro_Island|Amahoro]] * [[:en:Iwawa|Iwawa]] == Gallery == <gallery widths="175" heights="120"> File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|Lake Kivu from Sake, Goma, D R Congo File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|Lake Kivu plus [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de background insyd, Congo File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|Lake Kivu dey separate Bukavu (For de foreground insyd) den Cyangugu (For de background insyd) as dem see from Tumbimbi. </gallery> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Gasmeth_Energy_Gas_Works|Gasmeth Energy Gas Works]] * [[:en:Limnic_eruption|Limnic eruption]] * [[:en:Mazuku|Mazuku]] * [[:en:Meromictic_lake|Meromictic lake]] == References == 0tmn68ycx7io5oo36gfwubqikhfb3lx 100394 100393 2026-06-05T21:20:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100394 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[:en:African_Great_Lakes|African Great Lakes]].<ref name="readersnatural">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}</ref> E dey lie for de border between de [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] den [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de [[:en:Albertine_Rift|Albertine Rift]] insyd, de western branch of de [[:en:East_African_Rift|East African Rift]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lake Kivu dey empty into de [[:en:Ruzizi_River|Ruzizi River]], wey dey flow southwards into [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler [[:en:Gustav_Adolf_von_Götzen|Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. [[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[:en:White_Nile|White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, [[:en:Volcanism|volcanic activity]] block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.<ref name="Danley">{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de [[:en:Virunga_Mountains|Virungas]], wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[:en:Lake_Edward|Lake Edward]], to de north.<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref> Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika|Lake Tanganyika]], wey ovaflow down de [[:en:Lukuga_River|Lukuga River]].<ref name="Danley" /> Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den[[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], dat dey undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd. == Geography == Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.<ref name="readersnatural" /> Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.<ref name=":0" /> De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruption]] every 1000 years.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth [[:en:List_of_lakes_by_depth|deepest lake]] by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.<ref name="readersnatural" /> De lake bed dey sit upon a [[:en:Rift_valley|rift valley]] wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause [[:en:Volcanic_activity|volcanic activity]] for de area insyd. De world ein tenth-largest [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|island]] [[:en:List_of_islands_in_lakes|for a lake insyd]], [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]], dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd ==== Human geography ==== Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Congo|DRC]] borders.<ref name=":0" /> Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include [[:en:Bukavu|Bukavu]], [[:en:Kabare_Territory|Kabare]], [[:en:Kalehe_Territory|Kalehe]], [[:en:Sake,_DRC|Sake]] den [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd, den [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]], [[:en:Kibuye,_Rwanda|Kibuye]], den [[:en:Cyangugu|Cyangugu]] for Rwanda insyd. For early 2025 insyd, during de [[:en:M23_campaign_(2022–present)|M23 campaign]], de [[:en:Rwandan_Defence_Force|Rwandan military]] occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de [[:en:March_23_Movement|M23 Movement]], plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.<ref name=":015">{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}</ref> For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}</ref> == Chemistry == Lake Kivu be a [[:en:Meromictic_lake|meromictic lake]] wey dey contain a [[:en:Fresh_water|freshwater]] surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}</ref> Along plus Cameroonian [[:en:Lake_Nyos|Lake Nyos]] den [[:en:Lake_Monoun|Lake Monoun]], Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo [[:en:Limnic_eruption|limnic eruptions]] (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}</ref> De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include [[:en:Methane|methane]] (CH₄) den [[:en:Carbon_dioxide|carbon dioxide]] (CO₂), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.<ref name="Wenz">{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}</ref> De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern [[:en:Combined_cycle_power_plant|combined-cycle generating plant]] insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 [[:en:Megawatt|megawatts]] give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de [[:en:Grand_Coulee_Dam|Grand Coulee Dam]] at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de [[:en:PH|pH]] dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO₂).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.<ref name="Wenz" /> Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral [[:en:Monohydrocalcite|monohydrocalcite]] wey dem interlay plus [[:en:Diatoms|diatoms]], for top of [[:en:Sapropel|sapropelic]] sediments plus high [[:en:Pyrite|pyrite]] content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.<ref>"Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.</ref> Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}</ref><ref name="solidarites">{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]</ref> De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn [[:en:Tsunamis_in_lakes|lake tsunamis]] as gas dey explode out of am.<ref name="Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Killer Lakes">{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref><ref>[http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ "In the Shadow of Doom"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006</ref> Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population. Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be [[:en:Carbon_dioxide_in_the_Earth's_atmosphere#Concentration|a little under 2 percent]] of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get [[:en:Carbon_trade|costs]] beyond simply building den operating de system. Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of [[:en:Mazuku|mazuku]], de [[:en:Swahili_language|Swahili]] term "evil wind" give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd. ==== Methane extraction ==== [[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved [[:en:Biogas|biogas]] at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de [[:en:Bralirwa|Bralirwa brewery]] for [[:en:Gisenyi|Gisenyi]] insyd.<ref>[http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm "Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007</ref><ref name="powerhouse">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}</ref> As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake. == Biology den fisheries == [[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]] [[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]] [[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four [[:en:Introduced_species|introduced species]].<ref name="FishSnoeks">{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}</ref> De natives be de [[:en:Lake_Rukwa_minnow|Lake Rukwa minnow]] (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb ([[:en:Ripon_barbel|ripon barbel]], ''Barbus altianalis'', [[:en:East_African_red-finned_barb|East African red-finned barb]], ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', [[:en:Redspot_barb|redspot barb]], ''E. kerstenii'' den [[:en:Pellegrin's_barb|Pellegrin's barb]], ''E. pellegrini''), an ''[[:en:Amphilius|Amphilius]]'' catfish, two ''[[:en:Clarias|Clarias]]'' catfish (''[[:en:Clarias_liocephalus|C. liocephalus]]'' den ''[[:en:Clarias_gariepinus|C. gariepinus]]''), [[:en:Nile_tilapia|Nile tilapia]] (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''[[:en:Haplochromis|Haplochromis]]'' cichlids.<ref name="FishSnoeks" /> Another {{circa|20}} possibly [[:en:Undescribed_species|undescribed species]] of cichlids, dem know from de lake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern}}</ref> De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de [[:en:Longfin_tilapia|longfin tilapia]] (''Oreochromis macrochir''), [[:en:Oreochromis_leucostictus|blue-spotted tilapia]] (''O. leucostictus'') den [[:en:Redbreast_tilapia|redbreast tilapia]] (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sardine|Lake Tanganyika sardine]] (''Limnothrissa miodon'')<ref name="FishSnoeks" /><ref name="Collart">{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}</ref><ref name="Capart">{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}</ref> Dem refer sardine to locally as '[[:en:Ndagala|Ndagala]]' anaa 'Isambaza'.<ref name="Collart 1989">{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}</ref> De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}</ref> Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.<ref name="Collart" /><ref name="Capart" /> An attempt to introduce de similar [[:en:Lake_Tanganyika_sprat|Lake Tanganyika sprat]] (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.<ref name="Collart 1989" /> At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no [[:en:Planktivorous|planktivorous]] fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}</ref> Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''[[:en:Daphnia_curvirostris|Daphnia curvirostris]]'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''[[:en:Thermocyclops_consimilis|Thermocyclops consimilis]]'', ''[[:en:Mesocyclops_aequatorialis|Mesocyclops aequatorialis]]'' den ''[[:en:Tropocyclops_confinis|Tropocyclops confinis]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dem release first comprehensive [[:en:Phytoplankton|phytoplankton]] survey for 2006 insyd.<ref name="Sarmento 2006">{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&#x20;mg m⁻³ den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly [[:en:Trophic_state_index|oligotrophic]]. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.<ref name="Sarmento 2006" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> De actual primary production be 0.71&#x20;g C m⁻² d⁻¹ (≈ 260&#x20;g C m⁻² a⁻¹).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}</ref> A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[:en:Lake_Edward|Edward]], [[:en:Lake_George_(Uganda)|George]], [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a "proto-lake Kivu" insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}</ref> De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de [[:en:Kahuzi-Biega_National_Park|Kahuzi-Biega National Park]], one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of "proto-lake Kivu"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on "Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa" |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}</ref>, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years. Lake Kivu be de home of four species of [[:en:Freshwater_crab|freshwater crab]], wey dey include two non-endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_lirrangensis|Potamonautes lirrangensis]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_mutandensis|P. mutandensis]]'') den two endemics (''[[:en:Potamonautes_bourgaultae|P. bourgaultae]]'' den ''[[:en:Potamonautes_idjwiensis|P. idjwiensis]]'').<ref name="crabs">Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.</ref> Among [[:en:Rift_Valley_lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.<ref name="crabs" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> ===== Illegal fishing ===== For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}</ref> wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2022-02-02 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref> == Islands == * [[:en:Idjwi|Idjwi]] (part of [[:en:Idjwi_Territory|Idjwi Territory]], [[:en:South_Kivu|South Kivu Province]]) * [[:en:Nyamunini|Nyamunini]] (dem sanso know am Napoleon Island) * [[:en:Amahoro_Island|Amahoro]] * [[:en:Iwawa|Iwawa]] == Gallery == <gallery widths="175" heights="120"> File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|Lake Kivu from Sake, Goma, D R Congo File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|Lake Kivu plus [[:en:Goma|Goma]] for de background insyd, Congo File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|Lake Kivu dey separate Bukavu (For de foreground insyd) den Cyangugu (For de background insyd) as dem see from Tumbimbi. </gallery> == Make you sanso see == * [[:en:Gasmeth_Energy_Gas_Works|Gasmeth Energy Gas Works]] * [[:en:Limnic_eruption|Limnic eruption]] * [[:en:Mazuku|Mazuku]] * [[:en:Meromictic_lake|Meromictic lake]] * [[:en:Nyamyumba_Hot_Springs|Nyamyumba Hot Springs]] == References == 9zum1p0xhl8uboaurie4035v30p337f 0 27232 100241 100230 2026-06-05T13:23:46Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 100241 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> == References == 1alk7cyftjntjx0s0sgqagvwjyfptkd 100242 100241 2026-06-05T13:32:05Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 100242 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} == References == bh06mwr9ondx8ua2ff1v0ees8kxlbpr 100243 100242 2026-06-05T13:33:08Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 100243 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== == References == eyl2lr73hkky1ov290kzjbbvuv75hd0 100244 100243 2026-06-05T13:37:39Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 100244 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == References == 91wbuf33bbw2tuzyg58xjdlh0gmq2th 100245 100244 2026-06-05T13:38:28Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 100245 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == == References == th2apmvaa5pix1ep5u2bvstuyuy8b5m 100248 100245 2026-06-05T13:44:38Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 100248 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== == References == 9mw024f3jhlewnh2bu4t4uladvi6af0 100250 100248 2026-06-05T13:47:04Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 100250 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} == References == 5dbn7na70y09ujee0f5i8dqlvrth6hz 100263 100250 2026-06-05T14:16:48Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 100263 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures have generally increased over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, but locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa has increased by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimate dat by 2030, de people of Africa will be exposed to a rise insyd sea level due to an increase insyd temperature. Na dis will then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> == References == piwgbk5xdo1mj1ebh5nwtybhs33o9j9 100267 100263 2026-06-05T14:30:30Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 100267 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures have generally increased over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, but locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa has increased by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimate dat by 2030, de people of Africa will be exposed to a rise insyd sea level due to an increase insyd temperature. Na dis will then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as summarised insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> They sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions are likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change will vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> == References == 0s2n3wkl5h700mhn4xg6bdy4vocxv9h 100273 100267 2026-06-05T14:38:31Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 100273 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures have generally increased over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, but locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa has increased by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimate dat by 2030, de people of Africa will be exposed to a rise insyd sea level due to an increase insyd temperature. Na dis will then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as summarised insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> They sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions are likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change will vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research found dat most climate models will not be able to capture de extent of these changes because they are not conviction-permitting at their coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> == References == kmialj5fzuiioo9anbf0e2gvdplqar2 100275 100273 2026-06-05T14:39:40Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 100275 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures have generally increased over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, but locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa has increased by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimate dat by 2030, de people of Africa will be exposed to a rise insyd sea level due to an increase insyd temperature. Na dis will then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as summarised insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> They sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions are likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change will vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research found dat most climate models will not be able to capture de extent of these changes because they are not conviction-permitting at their coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> === Sea level rise === == References == q1onpr2cc2ur6kloqzj0fbuqpfn1f9k 100279 100275 2026-06-05T14:44:38Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 100279 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures have generally increased over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, but locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa has increased by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimate dat by 2030, de people of Africa will be exposed to a rise insyd sea level due to an increase insyd temperature. Na dis will then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as summarised insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> They sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions are likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change will vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research found dat most climate models will not be able to capture de extent of these changes because they are not conviction-permitting at their coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> === Sea level rise === {{See also|Floods in Africa}} [[File:Dar es Salaam (Aerial).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Tanzanian capital Dar es Salaam]] Insyd [[Africa]], future population growth amplifies risks from sea level rise. Some 54.2million people dey live insyd de highly exposed low elevation coastal zones (LECZ) around 2000. Dis number fi effectively double to around 110 million people by 2030. By 2060 e fi be around 185 to 230million people, depending on de extent of population growth. De average regional sea level rise will be around 21cm by 2060. At that point climate change scenarios will make little difference. But local geography den population trends interact to increase de exposure to hazards like 100-year floods insyd a complex way.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> == References == ofb5gcb8fa8n3onl075bbvsahtxqia3 100281 100279 2026-06-05T14:46:00Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 100281 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures have generally increased over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, but locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa has increased by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimate dat by 2030, de people of Africa will be exposed to a rise insyd sea level due to an increase insyd temperature. Na dis will then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as summarised insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> They sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions are likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change will vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research found dat most climate models will not be able to capture de extent of these changes because they are not conviction-permitting at their coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> === Sea level rise === {{See also|Floods in Africa}} [[File:Dar es Salaam (Aerial).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Tanzanian capital Dar es Salaam]] Insyd [[Africa]], future population growth amplifies risks from sea level rise. Some 54.2million people dey live insyd de highly exposed low elevation coastal zones (LECZ) around 2000. Dis number fi effectively double to around 110 million people by 2030. By 2060 e fi be around 185 to 230million people, depending on de extent of population growth. De average regional sea level rise will be around 21cm by 2060. At that point climate change scenarios will make little difference. But local geography den population trends interact to increase de exposure to hazards like 100-year floods insyd a complex way.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> [[File:Abidjan des Lagune.jpg|thumb|Abidjan, the economic powerhouse of Ivory Coast]] == References == r1tbk6ofzn9cvx2p84vgan7xejq9ylj 100284 100281 2026-06-05T14:47:20Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 100284 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures have generally increased over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, but locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa has increased by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimate dat by 2030, de people of Africa will be exposed to a rise insyd sea level due to an increase insyd temperature. Na dis will then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as summarised insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> They sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions are likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change will vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research found dat most climate models will not be able to capture de extent of these changes because they are not conviction-permitting at their coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> === Sea level rise === {{See also|Floods in Africa}} [[File:Dar es Salaam (Aerial).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Tanzanian capital Dar es Salaam]] Insyd [[Africa]], future population growth amplifies risks from sea level rise. Some 54.2million people dey live insyd de highly exposed low elevation coastal zones (LECZ) around 2000. Dis number fi effectively double to around 110 million people by 2030. By 2060 e fi be around 185 to 230million people, depending on de extent of population growth. De average regional sea level rise will be around 21cm by 2060. At that point climate change scenarios will make little difference. But local geography den population trends interact to increase de exposure to hazards like 100-year floods insyd a complex way.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> [[File:Abidjan des Lagune.jpg|thumb|Abidjan, the economic powerhouse of Ivory Coast]] {| class="wikitable" |+Populations within 100-year floodplains.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /><ref group="T1">In millions of people. The second and third columns include both the effects of population growth and the increased extent of floodplains by that point.</ref> !|Country !|2000 !|2030 !|2060 !|Growth 2000–2060<ref group="T1">The increase in area's population and the highest plausible scenario of population growth.</ref> |- |[[Egypt]] || 7.4 || 13.8 || 20.7 || 0.28 |- |[[Nigeria]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.9 || 0.84 |- |[[Senegal]] || 0.4 || 1.1 || 2.7 || 0.76 |- |[[Benin]] || 0.1 || 0.6 || 1.6 || 1.12 |- |[[Tanzania]] || 0.2 || 0.9 || 4.3 || 2.3 |- |[[Somalia]] || 0.2 || 0.6 || 2.7 || 1.7 |- |[[Côte d'Ivoire]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.7 || 0.65 |- |[[Mozambique]] || 0.7 || 1.4 || 2.5 || 0.36 |} {{reflist|group=T1}} == References == <references /> dpwzb1qhc109z5bguitppg6xbir8dvz 100286 100284 2026-06-05T14:51:39Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 100286 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures have generally increased over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, but locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa has increased by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimate dat by 2030, de people of Africa will be exposed to a rise insyd sea level due to an increase insyd temperature. Na dis will then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as summarised insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> They sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions are likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change will vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research found dat most climate models will not be able to capture de extent of these changes because they are not conviction-permitting at their coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> === Sea level rise === {{See also|Floods in Africa}} [[File:Dar es Salaam (Aerial).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Tanzanian capital Dar es Salaam]] Insyd [[Africa]], future population growth amplifies risks from sea level rise. Some 54.2million people dey live insyd de highly exposed low elevation coastal zones (LECZ) around 2000. Dis number fi effectively double to around 110 million people by 2030. By 2060 e fi be around 185 to 230million people, depending on de extent of population growth. De average regional sea level rise will be around 21cm by 2060. At that point climate change scenarios will make little difference. But local geography den population trends interact to increase de exposure to hazards like 100-year floods insyd a complex way.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> [[File:Abidjan des Lagune.jpg|thumb|Abidjan, the economic powerhouse of Ivory Coast]] {| class="wikitable" |+Populations within 100-year floodplains.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /><ref group="T1">In millions of people. The second and third columns include both the effects of population growth and the increased extent of floodplains by that point.</ref> !|Country !|2000 !|2030 !|2060 !|Growth 2000–2060<ref group="T1">The increase in area's population and the highest plausible scenario of population growth.</ref> |- |[[Egypt]] || 7.4 || 13.8 || 20.7 || 0.28 |- |[[Nigeria]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.9 || 0.84 |- |[[Senegal]] || 0.4 || 1.1 || 2.7 || 0.76 |- |[[Benin]] || 0.1 || 0.6 || 1.6 || 1.12 |- |[[Tanzania]] || 0.2 || 0.9 || 4.3 || 2.3 |- |[[Somalia]] || 0.2 || 0.6 || 2.7 || 1.7 |- |[[Côte d'Ivoire]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.7 || 0.65 |- |[[Mozambique]] || 0.7 || 1.4 || 2.5 || 0.36 |} {{reflist|group=T1}} == References == <references /> [[Category:Climate change by continent]] 8d2vvfwmlhlrbo3ccl0hn7pmqxk57hz 100287 100286 2026-06-05T14:52:40Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 100287 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures have generally increased over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, but locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa has increased by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimate dat by 2030, de people of Africa will be exposed to a rise insyd sea level due to an increase insyd temperature. Na dis will then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as summarised insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> They sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions are likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change will vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research found dat most climate models will not be able to capture de extent of these changes because they are not conviction-permitting at their coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> === Sea level rise === {{See also|Floods in Africa}} [[File:Dar es Salaam (Aerial).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Tanzanian capital Dar es Salaam]] Insyd [[Africa]], future population growth amplifies risks from sea level rise. Some 54.2million people dey live insyd de highly exposed low elevation coastal zones (LECZ) around 2000. Dis number fi effectively double to around 110 million people by 2030. By 2060 e fi be around 185 to 230million people, depending on de extent of population growth. De average regional sea level rise will be around 21cm by 2060. At that point climate change scenarios will make little difference. But local geography den population trends interact to increase de exposure to hazards like 100-year floods insyd a complex way.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> [[File:Abidjan des Lagune.jpg|thumb|Abidjan, the economic powerhouse of Ivory Coast]] {| class="wikitable" |+Populations within 100-year floodplains.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /><ref group="T1">In millions of people. The second and third columns include both the effects of population growth and the increased extent of floodplains by that point.</ref> !|Country !|2000 !|2030 !|2060 !|Growth 2000–2060<ref group="T1">The increase in area's population and the highest plausible scenario of population growth.</ref> |- |[[Egypt]] || 7.4 || 13.8 || 20.7 || 0.28 |- |[[Nigeria]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.9 || 0.84 |- |[[Senegal]] || 0.4 || 1.1 || 2.7 || 0.76 |- |[[Benin]] || 0.1 || 0.6 || 1.6 || 1.12 |- |[[Tanzania]] || 0.2 || 0.9 || 4.3 || 2.3 |- |[[Somalia]] || 0.2 || 0.6 || 2.7 || 1.7 |- |[[Côte d'Ivoire]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.7 || 0.65 |- |[[Mozambique]] || 0.7 || 1.4 || 2.5 || 0.36 |} {{reflist|group=T1}} == References == <references /> [[Category:Climate change by continent]] [[Category:Environment of Africa]] 5dfqa1dzdyy41k1cwmhjvonl5c4n7rg 100289 100287 2026-06-05T14:53:50Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 100289 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Temperature Bar Chart Africa--1901-2020--2021-07-14.png|thumb|upright=1.33|Graph showing temperature change insyd Africa between 1901 den 2021, plus red colour being warmer den blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 be taken as de reference point for these changes.)]] '''Climate change in Africa''' be a serious threat as Africa be one of de most vulnerable regions to de effects of climate change, despite contributing de least to causing am. Climate change be causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, [[Flood|floods]], den rising sea surface temperatures insyd Africa. These changes dey threaten food den water security, biodiversity, public health, den economic development.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |chapter=Africa |pages=1285–1456 |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations |first=UNEP |date=2017 |title=Responding to climate change |url=http://www.unep.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-climate-change |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=UNEP – UN Environment Programme |language=en}}</ref> Africa be currently warming faster dan de rest of de world on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=World Meterological Organization |date=2024-09-02 |title=Africa faces disproportionate burden from climate change and adaptation costs |url=https://wmo.int/news/media-centre/africa-faces-disproportionate-burden-from-climate-change-and-adaptation-costs |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=World Meteorological Organization |language=en}}</ref> Na Climate change dey intensifies existing socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Large segments of de African population depend on climate-sensitive livelihoods such as agriculture (55 - 62% of de workforce insyd sub-Saharan Africa)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book |title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 |edition=1 |pages=1289 |chapter=Africa |doi=10.1017/9781009325844.011}}</ref> den already live insyd poverty, heightening their exposure to shocks. Health outcomes worsen as heat stress, vector borne - diseases(such as [[malaria]] den [[Dengue fever|dengue]]), den [[malnutrition]] becam more prevalent. Over half (56%) of de over 2,000 recorded public health incidents insyd Africa between 2001 den 2021 dey connect to climate change.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Africa CDC |url=https://africacdc.org/download/climate-change-and-health-strategic-framework-2025/ |title=Climate Change and Health: Strategic Framework 2025 |date=7 July 2025 |pages=vii}}</ref> Resources scarcity contributes to displacement den conflict, particularly insyd fragile regions. Urban areas, often characterized by informal settlements, face heightened risks from flooding den extreme heat.<ref name=":02" /> Agriculture be one of de most vulnerable sectors, as most African farmers rely on rainfed crops. Reduced den unpredictable rainfall, combined plus higher temperatures, drives soil moisture loss, desertification (especially insyd de Sahara) den shifts suitable growing areas. These changes lower yields of staple crops, undermining food security den worsening hunger. Livestock health be increasingly compromised by heat stress den shifting disease patterns. Coastal den marine ecosystems face warming seas den rising levels, wich threaten fisheries den densely populated coastal settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fonjong |first1=Lotsmart |last2=Matose |first2=Frank |last3=Sonnenfeld |first3=David A. |date=2024-12-01 |title=Climate change in Africa: Impacts, adaptation, and policy responses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095937802400116X |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=89 |article-number=102912 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2024.102912 |bibcode=2024GEC....8902912F |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> De economic toll of climate change be severe. On average African countries face climate-related losses amounting to 2-5% of GDP annually, while adaptation costs insyd sub-Saharan Africa are projected at USD 30-50 billion per year over de next decade. Dis threatens development gains den places pressure on governments den international institutions to mobilise [[climate finance]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://uneca.org/sites/default/files/ACPC/publication/State-of-the-Climate-in-Africa-2023_en.pdf |title=State of the Climate in Africa: 2023 |date=2024 |isbn=978-92-63-11360-3 |location=Geneva}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=European Investment Bank |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/finance-in-africa-navigating-the-financial-landscape-in-turbulent-times |title=Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times |date=2022-10-19 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5382-2 |language=EN}}</ref> Africa's climate change adaptation strategies focus on building resilience through climate - smart agriculture, sustainable water management, ecosystem conservation, den strengthening health den infrastructure systems. These approaches prioritise enhancing governance, mobilising [[climate finance]] den investment, den fostering community participation to address vulnerability holistically.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tadesse |first=Debay |date=1 December 2010 |title=The impact of climate change in Africa |url=https://issafrica.org/research/papers/the-impact-of-climate-change-in-africa |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Badji |first1=Arfang |last2=Ibanda |first2=Angele |last3=Akello |first3=Sarah |last4=Ekwamu |first4=Adipala |date=2022 |title=Climate change impacts and adaptation strategies in Africa: Selected case studies |url=https://afjrdev.org/index.php/jos/article/view/410 |journal=African Journal of Rural Development |language=en |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=209–274 |issn=2415-2838}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ngongolo |first1=Kelvin |last2=Gayo |first2=Leopody |date=2025-05-21 |title=Climate change impacts and mitigation strategies in Sub-Saharan Africa's livestock production sector. A brief review |journal=Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice |language=English |volume=15 |article-number=14225 |doi=10.3389/past.2025.14225 |bibcode=2025PRPP...1514225N |doi-access=free |issn=2041-7136}}</ref> Continental den national frameworks emphasise multi-sectoral coordination, technology adoption, den capacity building to support sustainable development den reduce climate risk.<ref>{{Cite book |last=African Union |url=https://au.int/en/documents/20220628/african-union-climate-change-and-resilient-development-strategy-and-action-plan |title=African Union Climate Change and Resilient Development Strategy and Action Plan (2022-2032) |date=28 June 2022 |publisher=African Union}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}} ==Greenhouse gas emissions== Africa's per person greenhouse gas emissions are low compared to oda continents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/outreach/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FactSheet_Africa.pdf|title=Fact sheet - Africa|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> Emissions from land use change are uncertain, especially insyd [[Central Africa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Mostefaoui |first1=Mounia |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=McGrath |first3=Matthew J. |last4=Peylin |first4=Philippe |last5=Patra |first5=Prabir K. |last6=Ernst |first6=Yolandi |date=2024-01-11 |title=Greenhouse gas emissions and their trends over the last 3 decades across Africa |url=https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/16/245/2024/ |journal=Earth System Science Data |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=245–275 |doi=10.5194/essd-16-245-2024 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2024ESSD...16..245M |issn=1866-3516}}</ref> De main source of uncertainty det cam from carbon dioxide fluxes insyd de LULUCF sector (dis acronym stands for land use, land-use change, den forestry).<ref name=":0" /> == Impacts == ===Temperature den weather changes=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | total_width = 300 | image1 = Koppen-Geiger Map v2 Africa 1991–2020.svg | caption1 = [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Africa for 1991–2020 | image2 = Koppen-Geiger Map Africa future.svg | caption2 = 2071–2100 map under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely.<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ARER...47..343S }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref> }} Observed surface temperatures have generally increased over Africa since de late 19th century to de early 21st century by about 1°C, but locally as much as 3°C for minimum temperature insyd de Sahel at de end of de dry season.<ref name="IRD-2017">{{Cite book |title=Rural societies in the face of climatic and environmental changes in West Africa |date=2017 |publisher=IRD éditions |isbn=978-2-7099-2424-5 |location=Marseille |oclc=1034784045 |id=Impr. Jouve}}</ref> De warming of Africa has increased by +0.3 C from 1991 to 2021 versus +0.2 during 1961 to 1910. E be estimate dat by 2030, de people of Africa will be exposed to a rise insyd sea level due to an increase insyd temperature. Na dis will then cause agricultural productivity to decrease<ref>{{Cite book |last=Engel |first=Ulf |title=Yearbook on the African Union Volume 3 (2022) |date=2024 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-68308-2 |editor-last=Engel |editor-first=Ulf |location=Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar}}</ref>.Observed precipitation trends indicate spatial den temporal discrepancies as expected.<ref name="Collins-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Collins |first1=Jennifer M. |date=15 July 2011 |title=Temperature Variability over Africa |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=24 |issue=14 |pages=3649–3666 |bibcode=2011JCli...24.3649C |doi=10.1175/2011JCLI3753.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Niang-2014">Niang, I.; O. C. Ruppel; M. A. Abdrabo; A. Essel; C. Lennard; J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, 2014: Africa. In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V. R.; C. B. Field; D. J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1199–1265. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf</ref> De observed changes insyd temperature den [[precipitation]] vary regionally.<ref name="Conway-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Conway |first1=Declan |last2=Persechino |first2=Aurelie |last3=Ardoin-Bardin |first3=Sandra |last4=Hamandawana |first4=Hamisai |last5=Dieulin |first5=Claudine |last6=Mahé |first6=Gil |date=February 2009 |title=Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa during the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=41–59 |bibcode=2009JHyMe..10...41C |doi=10.1175/2008JHM1004.1 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Collins-2011" /> Current climate models (as summarised insyd de IPCC Sixth Assessment Report) predict increases insyd frequency den intensity of drought den heavy rainfall events.<ref name="Armstrong-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=Andrew |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Hope |first4=Rob |date=2022 |title=Intra-seasonal rainfall and piped water revenue variability in rural Africa |journal=Global Environmental Change |language=en |volume=76 |article-number=102592 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2022.102592|doi-access=free|bibcode=2022GEC....7602592A }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref> They sanso predict decreases insyd mean precipitation almost everywhere insyd Africa, plus medium to high confidence. However, local rainfall trends den socio-climatic interactions are likely to manifest insyd mixed patterns. Therefore, de converging impacts of climate change will vary across de continent. Insyd rural areas, rainfall patterns influence water usage.<ref name="Armstrong-2022" /> A study insyd 2019 dey predict increased dry spell length during wet seasons den increased extreme rainfall rates insyd Africa.<ref name="Kendon-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Kendon |first1=Elizabeth J. |last2=Stratton |first2=Rachel A. |last3=Tucker |first3=Simon |last4=Marsham |first4=John H. |last5=Berthou |first5=Ségolène |last6=Rowell |first6=David P. |last7=Senior |first7=Catherine A. |date=2019 |title=Enhanced future changes in wet and dry extremes over Africa at convection-permitting scale |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1794K |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09776-9 |pmc=6478940 |pmid=31015416 |article-number=1794}}</ref> Insyd other words: "both ends of Africa's weather extremes fi get more severe".<ref name="Weather Channel-2022">{{Cite news |title=More Extreme Weather in Africa's Future, Study Says |url=https://weather.com/news/climate/news/2019-06-18-africa-extreme-weather-drought-flood |access-date=2022-07-01 |work=The Weather Channel |language=en-US}}</ref> De research found dat most climate models will not be able to capture de extent of these changes because they are not conviction-permitting at their coarse grid scales.<ref name="Kendon-2019" /> === Sea level rise === {{See also|Floods in Africa}} [[File:Dar es Salaam (Aerial).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Tanzanian capital Dar es Salaam]] Insyd [[Africa]], future population growth amplifies risks from sea level rise. Some 54.2million people dey live insyd de highly exposed low elevation coastal zones (LECZ) around 2000. Dis number fi effectively double to around 110 million people by 2030. By 2060 e fi be around 185 to 230million people, depending on de extent of population growth. De average regional sea level rise will be around 21cm by 2060. At that point climate change scenarios will make little difference. But local geography den population trends interact to increase de exposure to hazards like 100-year floods insyd a complex way.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /> [[File:Abidjan des Lagune.jpg|thumb|Abidjan, the economic powerhouse of Ivory Coast]] {| class="wikitable" |+Populations within 100-year floodplains.<ref name="AR6_WGII_Chapter9" /><ref group="T1">In millions of people. The second and third columns include both the effects of population growth and the increased extent of floodplains by that point.</ref> !|Country !|2000 !|2030 !|2060 !|Growth 2000–2060<ref group="T1">The increase in area's population and the highest plausible scenario of population growth.</ref> |- |[[Egypt]] || 7.4 || 13.8 || 20.7 || 0.28 |- |[[Nigeria]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.9 || 0.84 |- |[[Senegal]] || 0.4 || 1.1 || 2.7 || 0.76 |- |[[Benin]] || 0.1 || 0.6 || 1.6 || 1.12 |- |[[Tanzania]] || 0.2 || 0.9 || 4.3 || 2.3 |- |[[Somalia]] || 0.2 || 0.6 || 2.7 || 1.7 |- |[[Côte d'Ivoire]] || 0.1 || 0.3 || 0.7 || 0.65 |- |[[Mozambique]] || 0.7 || 1.4 || 2.5 || 0.36 |} {{reflist|group=T1}} == References == <references /> [[Category:Climate change by continent]] [[Category:Environment of Africa]] [[Category:Climate change insyd Africa]] 6yz0kdrymwbrkrozpcqjyjwpk592t2v 0 27234 100327 100238 2026-06-05T19:10:26Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 100327 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Malawi''', dem sanso know as '''Lake Nyasa''' insyd [[Tanzania]] den '''Lago Niassa''' insyd [[Mozambique]], (Swahili: ''Ziwa Nyasa'') be an African Great Lake den de southernmost lake insyd de East African Rift system, dey locate between [[Malawi]], Mozambique den Tanzania. E be de fourth largest freshwater lake insyd de world by volume, de ninth largest lake insyd de world by area den de third largest den second deepest lake insyd Africa. Lake Malawi be home to more species of fish dan any other lake insyd de world,<ref name="unep2">{{Cite web |date=October 1995 |title=Protected Areas Programme |url=http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/data/wh/lakemal.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511101010/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/data/wh/lakemal.html |archive-date=2008-05-11 |access-date=2008-06-26 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, UNESCO}}</ref> wey dey include at least 700 species of cichlids.<ref name="Turner20012">Turner, Seehausen, Knight, Allender, and Robinson (2001).</ref> Na de Mozambique portion of de lake officially be declared a reserve by de Government of Mozambique on June 10, 2011,<ref name="panda2">WWF (10 June 2011).</ref> while insyd Malawi a portion of de lake be included insyd Lake Malawi National Park.<ref name="unep2" /> Lake Malawi be a meromictic lake, wey dey mean say ein water layers no dey mix. De permanent stratification of Lake Malawi ein water den de oxic-anoxic boundary be maintained by moderately small chemical den thermal gradients.<ref>Pilskaln, C. H. (2004).</ref> == Geography == Lake Malawi be between 560 kilometres (350 mi) den 580 kilometres (360 mi) long,<ref name="ceonline">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Lake_Nyasa.aspx#1-1E1:Nyasa-La-full|title=Lake Nyasa|access-date=2011-08-02|encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia|Columbia Encyclopedia Online]]|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]}}</ref> den about 75 kilometres (47 mi) wide at ein widest point. De lake get a total surface area of about 29,600 square kilometres (11,400 sq mi).<ref name="ceonline" /> De lake be 706 m (2,316 ft) at ein deepest point, wey locate insyd a major depression insyd de north-central part.<ref name="Konings2">[[Ad Konings|Konings, Ad]] (1990).</ref> Anoda smaller depression insyd de far north dey reach a depth of 528 m (1,732 ft).<ref name="Konings2" /> De southern half of de lake be shallower; less dan 400 m (1,300 ft) insyd de south-central part den less dan 200 m (660 ft) insyd de far south.<ref name="Konings2" /><gallery widths="180px"> File:Lake_Malawi00.jpg|Lake Malawi (1967) File:Mwaya_Beach,_Malawi.jpg|Mwaya Beach File:Monoxylon_beach_Lake_Malawi_1557.jpg|Beach at Cape Maclear near Monkey Bay </gallery> == Geological history == Malawi be one of de major Rift Valley lakes den an ancient lake. De lake dey lie insyd a valley wey de opening of de East African Rift form, wer de African tectonic plate be split into two pieces. Dis be called a divergent plate tectonics boundary. Malawi typically be estimated to be 1–2 million years old (mya),<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Ab. |last2=Teugels |first2=Gg. |last3=Meyer |first3=A. |date=Apr 2008 |editor1-last=Moritz |editor1-first=Craig |title=Marine Incursion: The Freshwater Herring of Lake Tanganyika Are the Product of a Marine Invasion into West Africa |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=4 |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.1979W |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0001979 |pmc=2292254 |pmid=18431469 |doi-access=free |article-number=e1979}}</ref><ref name="Givnish1997">Givnish, T.J.; and K.J. Sytsma, editors (1997). Molecular Evolution and Adaptive Radiation, p. 598. {{ISBN|0-521-57329-7}}.</ref> buh more recent evidence points to a considerably older lake plus a basin wey start to form about 8.6 mya den deep-water condition first appear 4.5 mya.<ref name="Delvaux1995">Delvaux, D. (1995). Age of Lake Malawi (Nyasa) and water level fluctuations. Mus. roy. Afr. centr., Tervuren (Belg.), Dept. Geol. Min., Rapp. ann. 1993 & 1994: 99–108.</ref><ref name="Sturmbauer2001">Sturmbauer; Baric; Salzburger; Rüber; and Verheyen (2001). Lake Level Fluctuations Synchronize Genetic Divergences of Cichlid Fishes in African Lakes. Mol Biol Evol 18(2): 144–154. {{doi|10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003788}}</ref> De water levels vary dramatically over time, wey dey range from almost {{convert|600|m|ft|abbr=on}} below current level<ref name=Cohen2007>Cohen; Stone; Beuning; Park; Reinthal; Dettman; Scholz; Johnson; King; Talbot; Brown; and Ivory (2007). Ecological consequences of early Late Pleistocene megadroughts in tropical Africas. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(42): 16422-16427. {{doi|10.1073/pnas.0703873104}}</ref> to {{convert|10-20|m|ft|abbr=on}} above.<ref name=Delvaux1995/> During periods de lake dry out almost completely, wey dey leave only one anaa two relatively small, highly alkaline den saline lakes insyd what currently be Malawi ein deepest parts.<ref name=Delvaux1995/><ref name=Cohen2007/> A water chemistry wey dey resemble de current conditions only appear about 60,000 years ago.<ref name=Cohen2007/> Major low-water periods be estimated to occur about 1.6 to 1.0–0.57 million years ago (wer e fi dry out completely), 420,000 to 250,000–110,000 years ago,<ref name=Delvaux1995/> about 25,000 years ago den 18,000–10,700 years ago.<ref name=Sturmbauer2001/> During de peak of de low-water period between 1390 den 1860 AD, e fi be {{convert|120-150|m|ft|abbr=on}} below current water levels.<ref name=Givnish1997/> == References == l4kjbj4v73rm1fdr4zyelersetbykxe 100328 100327 2026-06-05T19:13:06Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 100328 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Malawi''', dem sanso know as '''Lake Nyasa''' insyd [[Tanzania]] den '''Lago Niassa''' insyd [[Mozambique]], (Swahili: ''Ziwa Nyasa'') be an African Great Lake den de southernmost lake insyd de East African Rift system, dey locate between [[Malawi]], Mozambique den Tanzania. E be de fourth largest freshwater lake insyd de world by volume, de ninth largest lake insyd de world by area den de third largest den second deepest lake insyd Africa. Lake Malawi be home to more species of fish dan any other lake insyd de world,<ref name="unep2">{{Cite web |date=October 1995 |title=Protected Areas Programme |url=http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/data/wh/lakemal.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511101010/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/protected_areas/data/wh/lakemal.html |archive-date=2008-05-11 |access-date=2008-06-26 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, UNESCO}}</ref> wey dey include at least 700 species of cichlids.<ref name="Turner20012">Turner, Seehausen, Knight, Allender, and Robinson (2001).</ref> Na de Mozambique portion of de lake officially be declared a reserve by de Government of Mozambique on June 10, 2011,<ref name="panda2">WWF (10 June 2011).</ref> while insyd Malawi a portion of de lake be included insyd Lake Malawi National Park.<ref name="unep2" /> Lake Malawi be a meromictic lake, wey dey mean say ein water layers no dey mix. De permanent stratification of Lake Malawi ein water den de oxic-anoxic boundary be maintained by moderately small chemical den thermal gradients.<ref>Pilskaln, C. H. (2004).</ref> == Geography == Lake Malawi be between 560 kilometres (350 mi) den 580 kilometres (360 mi) long,<ref name="ceonline">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Lake_Nyasa.aspx#1-1E1:Nyasa-La-full|title=Lake Nyasa|access-date=2011-08-02|encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia|Columbia Encyclopedia Online]]|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]}}</ref> den about 75 kilometres (47 mi) wide at ein widest point. De lake get a total surface area of about 29,600 square kilometres (11,400 sq mi).<ref name="ceonline" /> De lake be 706 m (2,316 ft) at ein deepest point, wey locate insyd a major depression insyd de north-central part.<ref name="Konings2">[[Ad Konings|Konings, Ad]] (1990).</ref> Anoda smaller depression insyd de far north dey reach a depth of 528 m (1,732 ft).<ref name="Konings2" /> De southern half of de lake be shallower; less dan 400 m (1,300 ft) insyd de south-central part den less dan 200 m (660 ft) insyd de far south.<ref name="Konings2" /><gallery widths="180px"> File:Lake_Malawi00.jpg|Lake Malawi (1967) File:Mwaya_Beach,_Malawi.jpg|Mwaya Beach File:Monoxylon_beach_Lake_Malawi_1557.jpg|Beach at Cape Maclear near Monkey Bay </gallery> == Geological history == Malawi be one of de major Rift Valley lakes den an ancient lake. De lake dey lie insyd a valley wey de opening of de East African Rift form, wer de African tectonic plate be split into two pieces. Dis be called a divergent plate tectonics boundary. Malawi typically be estimated to be 1–2 million years old (mya),<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Ab. |last2=Teugels |first2=Gg. |last3=Meyer |first3=A. |date=Apr 2008 |editor1-last=Moritz |editor1-first=Craig |title=Marine Incursion: The Freshwater Herring of Lake Tanganyika Are the Product of a Marine Invasion into West Africa |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=3 |issue=4 |bibcode=2008PLoSO...3.1979W |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0001979 |pmc=2292254 |pmid=18431469 |doi-access=free |article-number=e1979}}</ref><ref name="Givnish1997">Givnish, T.J.; and K.J. Sytsma, editors (1997). Molecular Evolution and Adaptive Radiation, p. 598. {{ISBN|0-521-57329-7}}.</ref> buh more recent evidence points to a considerably older lake plus a basin wey start to form about 8.6 mya den deep-water condition first appear 4.5 mya.<ref name="Delvaux1995">Delvaux, D. (1995). Age of Lake Malawi (Nyasa) and water level fluctuations. Mus. roy. Afr. centr., Tervuren (Belg.), Dept. Geol. Min., Rapp. ann. 1993 & 1994: 99–108.</ref><ref name="Sturmbauer2001">Sturmbauer; Baric; Salzburger; Rüber; and Verheyen (2001). Lake Level Fluctuations Synchronize Genetic Divergences of Cichlid Fishes in African Lakes. Mol Biol Evol 18(2): 144–154. {{doi|10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003788}}</ref> De water levels vary dramatically over time, wey dey range from almost {{convert|600|m|ft|abbr=on}} below current level<ref name=Cohen2007>Cohen; Stone; Beuning; Park; Reinthal; Dettman; Scholz; Johnson; King; Talbot; Brown; and Ivory (2007). Ecological consequences of early Late Pleistocene megadroughts in tropical Africas. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(42): 16422-16427. {{doi|10.1073/pnas.0703873104}}</ref> to {{convert|10-20|m|ft|abbr=on}} above.<ref name=Delvaux1995/> During periods de lake dry out almost completely, wey dey leave only one anaa two relatively small, highly alkaline den saline lakes insyd what currently be Malawi ein deepest parts.<ref name=Delvaux1995/><ref name=Cohen2007/> A water chemistry wey dey resemble de current conditions only appear about 60,000 years ago.<ref name=Cohen2007/> Major low-water periods be estimated to occur about 1.6 to 1.0–0.57 million years ago (wer e fi dry out completely), 420,000 to 250,000–110,000 years ago,<ref name=Delvaux1995/> about 25,000 years ago den 18,000–10,700 years ago.<ref name=Sturmbauer2001/> During de peak of de low-water period between 1390 den 1860 AD, e fi be {{convert|120-150|m|ft|abbr=on}} below current water levels.<ref name=Givnish1997/> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *{{Cite journal|last= Mayall|first= James |date=December 1973 |title=The Malawi-Tanzania Boundary Dispute |journal=[[The Journal of Modern African Studies]] |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=611–628 |doi= 10.1017/S0022278X00008776 |s2cid= 154785268 }} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080727011039/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article2617296.ece Recent study on Lake Malawi water levels reveals drought 100,000 years ago] *{{cite web |title=Freshwater Fish Species in Lake Malawi (Nyasa) [Southeast Africa] |url=http://fish.mongabay.com/data/ecosystems/Lake%20Malawi.htm |website=[[Mongabay]] |access-date=9 December 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220202833/http://fish.mongabay.com/data/ecosystems/Lake%20Malawi.htm }} *''Growing up in a Border District and Resolving the Tanzania-Malawi Lake Dispute: Compromise and concessions'', by Godfrey Mwakikagile, African Renaissance Press, 2022 {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Malawi}} [[Category:Lake Malawi| ]] [[Category:Ancient lakes]] [[Category:African Great Lakes]] [[Category:Lakes of de Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Lakes of Malawi]] [[Category:Lakes of Tanzania]] [[Category:Malawi–Mozambique border]] [[Category:Malawi–Tanzania border crossings]] [[Category:International lakes of Africa]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Mozambique]] [[Category:Lakes of Mozambique]] [[Category:Territorial disputes of Malawi]] [[Category:Territorial disputes of Tanzania]] iaqfrgzuxktnx03d9ru081o6ezuobzj 0 27235 100268 2026-06-05T14:30:37Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1320420615|Cuanza River]]" 100268 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Cuanza River''',<ref name="gov.ao">{{Cite web |title=O Perfil de Angola |url=https://governo.gov.ao/ao/angola/o-perfil-de-angola/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924162332/https://governo.gov.ao/ao/angola/o-perfil-de-angola/ |archive-date=24 September 2022 |access-date=18 December 2021 |website=Portal Official do Governo da República de Angola |publisher=Governo de Angola}}</ref> dem sanso know as de '''Kwanza''', de '''Quanza''', anaa de '''Coanza''', be de longest river insyd [[Angola]]. E dey empty into de [[Atlantic Ocean]] just south of de national capital [[Luanda]]. == Geography == De river be navigable for about 150 miles (240 km) from ein mouth, wey locate 60 kilometers (37 mi) south of [[Luanda]]. Ein tributaries dey include de Cutato den Lucala. == History == De river ein navigable lower course be de original route of de Portuguese [[Portuguese Angola|invasion of northern Angola]]. De Capanda Dam insyd Malanje Province be finished insyd 2004, wey dey provide hydroelectric power to de region den dey assist insyd ein irrigation. De Cambambe Dam den de Lauca Dam sanso construct on de river. De Caculo Cabaça Dam be under construction plus estimated completion insyd 2024. De ''Barra do Kwanza'', de mouth of de river, gradually be developed for tourism, wey dey include a golf course. De Church of Nossa Senhora da Victoria dey stand near de banks of de Cuanza River insyd Massanganu, Province of Cuanza-Norte, [[Angola]]. == Wildlife == Rich biodiversity be found insyd de Angolan river, according to research reported on de Science and Development Network website. Angola ein first biodiversity tally of de Cuanza River get so far find 50 fish species. Researchers from de National Fishing Research Institute den de South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity say genetic testing fi reveal new species.<ref>[http://www.scidev.net/en/sub-suharan-africa/news/sub-saharan-africa-news-in-brief-13-25-march.html "Sub-Saharan Africa news in brief: 13–25 March, 2008"].</ref> Sportfishing dey include tarpon. == Legacy == Angola ein currency, de kwanza, be named after de river.<ref name="gov.ao">{{Cite web |title=O Perfil de Angola |url=https://governo.gov.ao/ao/angola/o-perfil-de-angola/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924162332/https://governo.gov.ao/ao/angola/o-perfil-de-angola/ |archive-date=24 September 2022 |access-date=18 December 2021 |website=Portal Official do Governo da República de Angola |publisher=Governo de Angola}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="">[https://web.archive.org/web/20220924162332/https://governo.gov.ao/ao/angola/o-perfil-de-angola/ "O Perfil de Angola"]. </cite></ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Theroux |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hy3Z8PyN5t0C&q=Kwanza+%3D%3D%5D&pg=PT268 |title=The Last Train to Zona Verde: Overland from Cape Town to Angola |date=30 May 2013 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=9780241965139 |via=Google Books}}</ref> De river sanso de namesake of de provinces of Cuanza Norte ("Cuanza North") den Cuanza Sul ("Cuanza South"). == References == === Citations === === Bibliography === == External links == 8q3qlwmetklddz2c3znz6g1fs20kypo 0 27236 100283 2026-06-05T14:47:15Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1340653233|Great Fish River]]" 100283 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Close_to_great_fish_river790.JPG|thumb|Landscape near de middle course of de Great Fish River]] De '''Great Fish River''' (dem call ''great'' to distinguish am from de [[Namibia|Namibian]] Fish River) (Afrikaans: ''Groot-Visrivier'')<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riviere van Suid-Afrika |url=http://myfundi.co.za/a/Riviere_van_Suid-Afrika |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430151102/http://myfundi.co.za/a/Riviere_van_Suid-Afrika |archive-date=2012-04-30 |access-date=2012-03-18}}</ref> be a river wey dey run 644 kilometres (400 mi) thru de [[South Africa|South African]] province of de Eastern Cape. De coastal area between Port Elizabeth den de Fish River mouth be known as de ''Sunshine Coast''. Na de Great Fish River originally be named ''Rio do Infante'', after João Infante, de captain of one of de caravels of Bartolomeu Dias. Infante visit de river insyd de late 1480s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raper |first=Peter Edmund |url=https://archive.org/details/DictionaryOfSouthernAfricanPlaceNames |title=Dictionary of Southern African Place Names |publisher=Human Science Research Council |year=1987 |location=Johannesburg}} (public domain)</ref> De name Great Fish be a misnomer, since e be a translation of de Dutch '''Groot Visch Rivier''', wich be de name of a tributary insyd de vicinity of Cradock,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Toit |first=Chris Marais and Julienne du |date=2023-10-11 |title=Cradock II: The Fish, the Show, the Ghosts & the Trekbokke |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2023-10-11-cradock-ii-the-fish-the-show-the-ghosts-the-trekbokke/ |access-date=2024-01-31 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> wich at ein confluence plus de Little Fish ('''Klein Visch Rivier''') dey form wat be properly called de (Eastern Cape) Fish River. == Course == De Great Fish River dey originate east of Graaff-Reinet den dey run thru Cradock. Further south de Tarka River dey join ein left bank. Thence e dey make a zig-zag turn to Cookhouse, from wer e dey meander down de escarpment east of Grahamstown before ein final near-straight run to ein estuary 8&nbsp;km northeast of Seafield, into de Indian Ocean.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'Keeffe |first=J. H. |last2=De Moor |first2=F. C. |date=January 1988 |title=Changes in the physico-chemistry and benthic invertebrates of the great fish river, South Africa, following an interbasin transfer of water |journal=Regulated Rivers: Research & Management |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=39–55 |doi=10.1002/rrr.3450020105 |issn=0886-9375}}</ref> De river be generally permanent, e get water all year round, although ein headwaters dey rise insyd an arid region, den de natural flow fi be sluggish insyd de dry season beyond de ebb den flow of de tidal reaches; now, water from de Orange River system fi be used to keep up ein flow insyd dry periods. De river be tidal for roughly 20&nbsp;km.<ref name=":0" /> Ein main tributaries be de Groot Brak River, de Tarka River den de Kap River on de left side, den de Little Fish River (Afrikaans: ''Klein-Visrivier'') on de right side. De Great Fish River be part of de Fish to Tsitsikama Water Management Area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fish to Tsitsikama WMA 15 |url=http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA15FishTsitsikamma.jpg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630195400/http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA15FishTsitsikamma.jpg |archive-date=30 June 2017 |access-date=29 March 2012}}</ref> == Dams on de basin == * Egerton Dam * Elandsdrift Dam == Climate == At de river mouth, de climate be temperate plus around 650 mm (26 in) of rainfall wey dey fall mainly during spring den autumn. Mean temperatures dey range from 12 to 24 °C (54 to 75 °F) plus extremes as low as 2 °C (36 °F) anaa as high as 40 °C (104 °F). == Ecology == Insyd de 1970s, a major water project bring Orange River water, via de Fish River, for agricultural den industrial use. De tunnel for dis be a major engineering wey dey undertake, plus de intake at Oviston (an acronym, insyd Afrikaans, for Orange-Fish Tunnel). Oviston be on de shores of de Gariep Dam. A hydro-electric generating plant be placed at de Fish River egress, buh be uneconomic wey e no be in use. Mixing of waters from two watersheds be environmentally disastrous—much of de Fish River ecosystem now be taken over by Orange River flora den fauna. === Flora === At de river mouth, der be Valley thicket, dune thicket, riparian vegetation den fynbos. De eastern Cape giant cycad, de red den de white milkwood be protected trees. Oda significant species dey include de acacia, white pear, Karoo boer-bean, wild banana, dune poison bush, wild plum, coral tree den small knobwood.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Landscape of the Great Fish River, South Africa |url=https://www.nature-reserve.co.za/great-fish-river-landscape.html |access-date=2024-10-20 |website=www.nature-reserve.co.za}}</ref> === Fauna === Der be a small population of de endangered Eastern Province rocky (''Sandelia bainsii'') insyd de Kat River, part of de Great Fish river basin.<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/19889/all Sandelia bainsii]</ref> == History == [[File:Seven_Years_in_South_Africa,_page_460,_narrow_escape_near_Cradock.jpg|thumb|Explorer Emil Holub fording de flooded Great Fish River near Cradock (1879)]] == References == == External links == * [http://www.dwaf.gov.za/documents/other/wma/15/fishsundaysispfeb05ap.pdf Fish to Sundays: Internal Strategic Perspective] Archived 7 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine * [https://archives-manuscripts.dartmouth.edu/repositories/2/resources/1196 James MacKinlay diary] at Dartmouth College Library [[Category:Pages with unreviewed translations]] mj4dc5zeewnf4bumxfco4d0mdgp5t3c 0 27237 100299 2026-06-05T15:04:11Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1320357851|Great Kei River]]" 100299 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Great Kei River''' be a river insyd de Eastern Cape province of [[South Africa]]. E be formed by de confluence of de Black Kei River den White Kei River, northeast of Cathcart. E dey flow for 320 km (199 mi)<ref>[http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/estuary/catch/greatkei.html SA Estuarine Land-cover: Great Kei Catchment] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041227041011/http://www.environment.gov.za/soer/estuary/catch/greatkei.html|date=2004-12-27}}</ref> den dey end insyd de Great Kei Estuary at de Indian Ocean plus de small town Kei Mouth on de west bank. Historically de Great Kei River form de southwestern border of de Transkei region as na e be formerly known as de Nciba River. == Course == [[File:Map_on_wall_at_Kei_Mouth.jpg|left|thumb|Map of Great Kei River from Kei Bridge to Kei Mouth]] De Great Kei River be a meandering river course wey e be formed by de convergence of de Black Kei River den de White Kei River insyd Enoch Mgijima Local Municipality, north-east of Cathcart den southeast of Queenstown. De Great Kei river dey flow from de junction of de Black den White Kei rivers for approximately 225 kilometers (140 miles) southeastwards along winding courses to de Indian Ocean. E dey terminate at de Great Kei estuary by Kei Mouth, a coastal resort town. Ein longest tributary be de Tsomo insyd de north. De name get ein origins as far back as 1752 wey be based on a Khoisan word for de river wey dey mean 'sand'. De Great Kei previously form de southwestern border of de Transkei region wich fi be accessed via de 'Pont', one of only two car-transporting river ferries insyd South Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Great Kei River |url=https://www.keimouth.co.za/activities/great-kei-river/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215024108/https://www.keimouth.co.za/activities/great-kei-river/ |archive-date=15 February 2018 |access-date=16 January 2018 |website=www.keimouth.co.za}}</ref> De pont be currently operational den motorists be frequently ferried from de southwestern bank to de northeastern bank into de Wild Coast. [[File:Eastern_Frontier,_Cape_of_Good_Hope,_ca_1835.png|right|thumb|Map of de Great Kei River during de Frontier wars]] == Climate == De estuaries from de Great Kei river to southern [[Mozambique]] be classified as subtropical. Dese systems be characterized by warm waters of more dan 16 degrees Celsius. De climate be warm den humid almost year-round as a result. Minimum winter temperatures dey range from 12 – 14 degrees Celsius den de area dey receive rainfall thru out de year.<ref>Harrison T. D. (2002) Preliminary assessment of the biogeography of fishes in South African estuaries. Marine and Freshwater Research 53, 479–490. https://doi.org/10.1071/MF01121</ref> == Dams insyd de Great Kei basin == * Xonxa Dam insyd de White Kei River (Wit-Kei River). * Wriggleswade Dam on de Kubusi River * Bongolo Dam, insyd de Komani River, a tributary of de Klaas Smits River, einself a tributary of de Black Kei River [[File:Old_road_bridge_on_Great_Kei_River.jpg|right|thumb|De Old road bridge on de Great Kei River]] == Great Kei Pass == De N2 road dey pass thru Komga den Butterworth insyd an area be known as de Great Kei Pass anaa Kei Cuttings. E be a known for ein high prevalence of accidents secof mist den wandering cattle. Dis section of de N2 dey pass across de Great Kei River. De Kei Cuttings dey lie inland from de Kei Mouth, Morgans Bay den Chintsa West.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kei Cuttings in Butterworth, Eastern Cape |url=https://www.sa-venues.com/attractionsec/kei-cuttings.php |access-date=16 January 2018 |website=www.sa-venues.com}}</ref> == References == == External links == * [http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA12MzimvubuKeiskamma.jpg Mizimbuvu to Keiskamma WMA 12] * [http://www.wildcoast.co.za/node/112 Towns of historical interest in the 'kei] * http://www.dwa.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/state_of_rivers/ecape_04/Kei_summer.pdf Archived 1 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine * https://municipalities.co.za/overview/1005/great-kei-local-municipality 4ky21klwxrpbb8jvrbhgnd2yq5ceakf 0 27238 100322 2026-06-05T17:25:51Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1357403115|Orange River]]" 100322 wikitext text/x-wiki De '''Orange River''' (from Afrikaans/Dutch: '''''Oranjerivier''''') be a river insyd Southern Africa. E be de longest river insyd [[South Africa]]. Plus a total length of 2,432 km (1,511 mi), de Orange River Basin dey extend from [[Lesotho]] into South Africa den [[Namibia]] to de north. E dey rise insyd de Drakensberg mountains insyd Lesotho, dey flow westwards thru South Africa to de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. De river dey form part of de international borders between South Africa den Lesotho den between South Africa den Namibia, as well as several provincial borders within South Africa. Except for Upington, e no dey pass thru any major cities. De Orange River dey play an important role insyd de South African economy by providing water for irrigation den hydroelectric power. De river be named de Orange River in honour of de Dutch ruling family, de House of Orange, by de Dutch explorer Robert Jacob Gordon. Oda names include simply de word for river, insyd Khoekhoegowab orthography dem wrep as '''!Garib''', wich be rendered insyd Afrikaans as '''Gariep River''' plus de intrusion of a velar fricative in place of de alveolar click,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Travel |first=Wild Africa |title=Wild Africa Travel: Orange River |url=http://www.wildafricatravel.com/home/country-overview/southern-region/orange-river/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220031736/http://www.wildafricatravel.com/home/country-overview/southern-region/orange-river/ |archive-date=20 December 2016 |access-date=2016-12-03 |website=www.wildafricatravel.com}}</ref> '''Groote River''' (dem derive from '''Kai !Garib''') anaa '''Senqu River''' (dem use insyd Lesotho), dem derive from '''ǂNū''' "Black".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Orange River Basin |url=https://www.dwa.gov.za/orange/intro.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213081531/https://www.dwa.gov.za/orange/intro.aspx |archive-date=13 December 2016 |access-date=2016-12-03 |website=www.dwa.gov.za}}</ref> E be known insyd isiZulu as '''isAngqu.'''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Doke |first=C.M |title=Zulu-English Dictionary |publisher=Witwatersrand University Press |year=1972 |isbn=0-85494-027-8 |location=Johannesburg |pages=11 |language=en, zu}}</ref> == Course == [[File:Orange_River_basin_map.svg|left|thumb|De course den watershed of de Orange River, Caledon River den Vaal River (ǀHaiǃarib). Dis map dey show a conservative border for de watershed. Specifically, de Kalahari basin be excluded, as sam sources say e be endorheic. Sam oda sources wey dey use computational methods show a basin wich dey include parts of [[Botswana]] (den hence of de Kalahari).<ref name="wri2">Revenga, C.; Murray, S.; Abramovitz, J. and Hammond, A .</ref>]] De Orange dey rise insyd de Drakensberg mountains along de border between South Africa den Lesotho, about 193 km (120 mi) west of de Indian Ocean den at an altitude of over 3,000 m (9,800 ft). De extremity of de Orange River insyd Lesotho be known as de '''Senqu'''. Parts of de Senqu River freeze insyd winter secof de high altitude. Dis dey create droughts downstream, wich mainly dey affect goat den cattle production.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news|title=Orange River {{!}} Physical Features & Exploration {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Orange-River|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260506034950/https://www.britannica.com/place/Orange-River|archive-date=2026-05-06|access-date=2026-06-01|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> [[File:Rosh_Pinah_Orange_River.jpg|thumb|Orange River south of Rosh Pinah]] [[File:Senqu_River_in_Lesotho.jpg|thumb|Senqu River Near Ha Potomane (Cutting Camp) insyd Quthing, Lesotho]] [[File:Orange_River_near_Oranjerivier.jpg|thumb|Orange River near Hopetown]] De Orange River dey then run westward thru South Africa, dey form de south-western boundary of de Free State province. Insyd dis section, de river dey flow first into de Gariep Dam den later into de Vanderkloof Dam. From de border of Lesotho to below de Vanderkloof Dam, de river bed deeply be incised. Further downstream, de land be flatter, den de river be used extensively for irrigation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Orange River {{!}} South African History Online |url=https://sahistory.org.za/place/orange-river |access-date=2026-06-01 |website=sahistory.org.za |language=en}}</ref> === Catchment den rainfall === [[File:Augrabie_01.jpg|thumb|De Augrabies Falls insyd full flow]] De total catchment of de Orange River (wey dey include de Vaal) dey extend over 973,000 km2 (376,000 sq mi), i.e. equivalent to about 77% of de land area of South Africa (1,221,037 km2 (471,445 sq mi)). Around 366,000 km2 (141,000 sq mi) (38%), however, be situated outsyd de country insyd Lesotho, Botswana, den Namibia. === Tributaries === * Vaal River - 1,458 km (906 mi) * Caledon River - 642 km (399 mi) * Khubelu River - 144 km (89 mi) === Dams === * Armenia Dam * Egmont Dam * Gariep Dam * Newberry Dam * Vanderkloof Dam * Welbedacht Dam == References == npzem85msger3ykr9xd7eoitep1cude 0 27239 100323 2026-06-05T17:37:00Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1333526380|Gamtoos River]]" 100323 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:South_Africa-Eastern_Cape-Gamtoos_Valley-Alluvial_Gravel01.jpg|right|thumb|290x290px|Outcrop of Enon Conglomerate wey Alluvial deposits form insyd de Gamtoos Valley, on de R331 between Patensie den de Kouga Dam]] '''Gamtoos River''' anaa '''Gamptoos River''' be a river insyd de Eastern Cape Province, [[South Africa]]. E be formed by de confluence of de Kouga River den de Groot River wey e be approximately 645 kilometres (401 mi) long plus a catchment area of 34,635 square kilometres (13,373 sq mi).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fish to Tsitsikamma WMA 15 |url=http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA15FishTsitsikamma.jpg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630195400/http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA15FishTsitsikamma.jpg |archive-date=2017-06-30 |access-date=2012-03-28}}</ref> == Course == De Gamtoos river system be formed by de Groot, de Kouga den de Baviaanskloof rivers. De latter be a tributary of de Kouga.<ref>[http://www.ru.ac.za/static/institutes/iwr//wetland/data/GamtoosSYSTEM/GamtoosSystemReport.pdf Catchment L, the Gamtoos River System] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222080910/http://www.ru.ac.za/static/institutes/iwr/wetland/data/GamtoosSYSTEM/GamtoosSystemReport.pdf|date=2014-12-22}}</ref> Although de rainfall insyd de catchment area be low, e dey support commercial irrigated agriculture insyd de lower catchment area, oranges, tobacco, citrus fruit den vegetables be grown. De estuary wer de Gamtoos river dey enter de Indian Ocean dey locate between Jeffreys Bay den Port Elizabeth wer de Gamtoos River Mouth Nature Reserve dey locate. De towns of Hankey, de oldest town situate insyd de Gamtoos river valley, den Patensie dey situate insyd de lower catchment area. Further inland be de towns of Steytlerville, Joubertina, Uniondale, Willowmore den Murraysburg. Tributaries dey include de Loerie River, Klein River, de Hol River, besides de Groot den de Kouga wey form de Gamtoos. == History == Saartjie Baartman - de "Hottentot Venus" - dem born around 1789 insyd de vicinity of de Gamtoos river. Insyd 1877 during a severe drought insyd de region, de Gamtoos River dry up completely.<ref name="sellick-125">{{Cite book |last=Sellick |first=W.S.J. |url=https://archive.org/details/uitenhagepastpre00sell |title=Uitenhage, past and present : souvenir of the Centenary, 1804-1904 |year=1904 |pages=125}}</ref> During de floods of October 1867, according to John Croumbie Brown, de level of water insyd sam parts of de river rise by up to 21 m (70 ft).<ref name="brown-125">{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=John Croumbie |title=Water supply of South Africa, and facilities for the storage of it |publisher=Edinburgh, Oliver & Boyd |year=1877 |pages=125 |chapter=III - Supply of water as affected by rivers |access-date=2009-11-23 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/watersupplyofsou00browrich#page/125/mode/1up}}</ref> == Dams insyd de basin == Presently dis river be part of de Fish to Tsitsikama Water Management Area. * Kouga Dam insyd de Kouga River == References == a317jwy03ih7ldaelp6uguclsyfhvdt 0 27240 100324 2026-06-05T17:45:04Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1290394676|Jukskei River]]" 100324 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Jukskei River |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:South_Africa-Johannesburg-Jukskei_river-001.jpg|frameless]]<div class="infobox-caption">Jukskei flowing past Gillooly's Farm</div> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<mapframe height="200" frameless="1" align="center" width="250">[ {"properties":{"stroke-width":5,"stroke":"#4271ae","title":"Jukskei River"},"type":"ExternalData","service":"geoline","ids":"Q3811044"}, {"properties":{"stroke-width":3,"stroke":"#4271ae","title":"Klein Jukskei"},"type":"ExternalData","service":"geoline","ids":"Q123009668"} ]</mapframe> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px">[[File:South_Africa_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|250x250px|Jukskei River is located in South Africa]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:30.419%;left:69.344%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Jukskei River]]</div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Location of the Jukskei River mouth</div></div></div></div> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Location |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[South Africa]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Province | class="infobox-data" |Gauteng |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Physical&nbsp;characteristics |- style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Source | class="infobox-data" |Natural Spring |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Ellis Park, Johannesburg, [[South Africa]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;coordinates</span> | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jukskei_River&params=26.196_S_28.064_E_ <span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">26°11′46″S</span> <span class="longitude">28°03′50″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">26.196°S 28.064°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-26.196; 28.064</span></span></span>]</span></span> |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Mouth | class="infobox-data" |Crocodile River |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;coordinates</div> | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jukskei_River&params=25_52_34_S_27_55_38_E_type:river <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">25°52′34″S</span> <span class="longitude">27°55′38″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">25.87611°S 27.92722°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-25.87611; 27.92722</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jukskei_River&params=25_52_34_S_27_55_38_E_type:river <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">25°52′34″S</span> <span class="longitude">27°55′38″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">25.87611°S 27.92722°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-25.87611; 27.92722</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</div> | class="infobox-data" |1,234&nbsp;m (4,049&nbsp;ft) |- style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Discharge | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Crocodile River |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;average</span> | class="infobox-data" |120&nbsp;m³/s (4,200&nbsp;cu&nbsp;ft/s) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |} [[Category:Short description is different from Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 5sb9u4rey4rylgujfxd9gd6afnltcdd 100325 100324 2026-06-05T17:57:50Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1290394676|Jukskei River]]" 100325 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Jukskei River |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:South_Africa-Johannesburg-Jukskei_river-001.jpg|frameless]]<div class="infobox-caption">Jukskei flowing past Gillooly's Farm</div> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<mapframe height="200" frameless="1" align="center" width="250">[ {"properties":{"stroke-width":5,"stroke":"#4271ae","title":"Jukskei River"},"type":"ExternalData","service":"geoline","ids":"Q3811044"}, {"properties":{"stroke-width":3,"stroke":"#4271ae","title":"Klein Jukskei"},"type":"ExternalData","service":"geoline","ids":"Q123009668"} ]</mapframe> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |<templatestyles src="Module:Location map/styles.css"></templatestyles><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px">[[File:South_Africa_relief_location_map.svg|class=notpageimage noviewer|250x250px|Jukskei River is located in South Africa]]<div class="od notheme" style="top:30.419%;left:69.344%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px">[[File:Red_pog.svg|link=|class=notpageimage noviewer|8x8px|Jukskei River]]</div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Location of the Jukskei River mouth</div></div></div></div> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Location |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[South Africa]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Province | class="infobox-data" |Gauteng |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Physical&nbsp;characteristics |- style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Source | class="infobox-data" |Natural Spring |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Ellis Park, Johannesburg, [[South Africa]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;coordinates</span> | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jukskei_River&params=26.196_S_28.064_E_ <span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">26°11′46″S</span> <span class="longitude">28°03′50″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">26.196°S 28.064°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-26.196; 28.064</span></span></span>]</span></span> |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Mouth | class="infobox-data" |Crocodile River |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;coordinates</div> | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jukskei_River&params=25_52_34_S_27_55_38_E_type:river <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">25°52′34″S</span> <span class="longitude">27°55′38″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">25.87611°S 27.92722°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-25.87611; 27.92722</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jukskei_River&params=25_52_34_S_27_55_38_E_type:river <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">25°52′34″S</span> <span class="longitude">27°55′38″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">25.87611°S 27.92722°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-25.87611; 27.92722</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</div> | class="infobox-data" |1,234&nbsp;m (4,049&nbsp;ft) |- style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Discharge | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Crocodile River |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;average</span> | class="infobox-data" |120&nbsp;m³/s (4,200&nbsp;cu&nbsp;ft/s) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |} De '''Jukskei River'''<ref name="JukseiRiver">{{Cite web |title=Exact location of Juksei River |url=http://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/2679538 |publisher=OpenStreetMap}}</ref> be one of de largest rivers insyd Johannesburg, [[South Africa]]. E be de southernmost river insyd de Crocodile River basin.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/FROC/WMA3CrocMarico.jpg Crocodile/Marico WMA 3]</ref> == Course == De Jukskei dey begin insyd Ellis Park insyd Johannesburg. Ein original spring be on de former Doornfontein farm, wich measure at 18,000 litres per hour, buh e since disappear under subsequent urban development.<ref name="Christie2">{{Cite news|author=Christie, Sean|date=3 January 2014|title=Searching for the soul of the Jukskei|newspaper=Mail and Guardian|location=South Africa|url=http://mg.co.za/article/2014-01-02-searching-for-the-soul-of-the-jukskei|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103215935/http://mg.co.za/article/2014-01-02-searching-for-the-soul-of-the-jukskei|archivedate=3 January 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Now de first surface expression of de Jukskei be insyd Bertrams at de intersection of Queen Street den Sports Avenue wer e emerge from a storm drain. From der be de river dey flow thru Bezuidenhout Valley den Bruma. E then meander insyd a northerly direction thru Bedfordview den Edenvale before flowing thru Alexandra Township. E then dey turn northwest den dey flow thru Modderfontein, Buccleuch, Leeuwkop Prison, Lone Hill, Dainfern den Steyn City before joining de Crocodile River outsyd Lanseria.<ref name="Christie2" /> == Tributaries == De Jukskei River be joined by numerous streams along ein course plus ein major tributaries be de Modderfontein Spruit, Braamfontein Spruit den de Klein-Jukskei. De Jukskei River dey provide de largest amount of water, by discharge, into de Crocodile River basin.<ref name="Christie2" /> == Character == De Jukskei mostly be shallow wey e no be deep enough for transportation. E sanso be heavily [[Water pollution|polluted]] by urban runoff. Lack of infrastructure maintenance let raw waste flow into de river on a daily basis. Dem occasionally find [[cholera]]-causing bacteria insyd de river.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cholera found in Jukskei river |url=https://www.news24.com/xArchive/Archive/Cholera-found-in-Jukskei-river-20010118}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cholera found in city river |url=https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/cholera-found-in-city-river-438069}}</ref> De river dey receive a large inflow from de Northern Waste Water Treatment Plant insyd northern Johannesburg. De Jukskei River be one of de largest contributing factors of de eutrophication problems wey dey face Hartbeespoort Dam further down stream. Tons of waste such as plastic, metal den rubber dey flow down de river annually.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statement by minister Ronnie Kasrils, Minister of water affairs and forestry |url=http://www.info.gov.za/speeches/2001/010119145p1001.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604093758/http://www.info.gov.za/speeches/2001/010119145p1001.htm |archive-date=2011-06-04 |access-date=2008-06-20 |publisher=South African Government}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cholera found in Alexandra's Jukskei River |url=http://www.dispatch.co.za/2001/01/19/southafrica/CHOLERA.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313092320/http://www.dispatch.co.za/2001/01/19/southafrica/CHOLERA.HTM |archive-date=2007-03-13 |access-date=2008-06-20 |publisher=Daily Dispatch}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Olukunle |first=Olubiyi |last2=Okonkwo |first2=Jonathan |last3=Kefeni |first3=Kebede |last4=Lupankwa |first4=Mlindelwa |date=2011-12-10 |title=Concentrations of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in Sediments from Jukskei River, Gauteng, South Africa |journal=Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=461–466 |doi=10.1007/s00128-011-0481-y |issn=0007-4861 |pmid=22160134 |s2cid=31382677}}</ref> == Cultural den sporting significance == De Jukskei traditionally demarcate de boundary between de ''Northern Transvaal'' den ''Transvaal'' for sporting purposes,<ref name="Ltd1992">{{Cite book |last=Chris van Rensburg Publications (Pty) Ltd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X21BAQAAIAAJ |title=Transvaal: the Golden Province |publisher=C. van Rensburg Publications |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-86846-065-9}}</ref> den teams like de Titans cricket team den Blue Bulls (formerly ''Northern Transvaal'') continue to be headquartered insyd Pretoria, north of de Jukskei. == References == mtp6qag3z8slto65u8gl4sjvwzxpy3v 0 27241 100326 2026-06-05T17:58:58Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1350769859|Kafue River]]" 100326 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Kafue |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Kafue_river02.jpg|frameless]]<div class="infobox-caption">Kafue River, Chamufumbu, near Lubungu Pontoon, Zambia</div> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Kafue_OSM.svg|276x276px]]<div class="infobox-caption">The Kafue River Basin</div> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Location |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |City | class="infobox-data" |[[Kitwe]], [[Mazabuka]], [[Kafue| Kafue Town]] |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Physical&nbsp;characteristics |- style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Source | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Zambian border with the Democratic Republic of Congo northwest of Kipushi, North-Western Province, [[Zambia]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;coordinates</span> | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kafue_River&params=11_36_S_27_12_E_type:river_region:ZM <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">11°36′S</span> <span class="longitude">27°12′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">11.600°S 27.200°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-11.600; 27.200</span></span></span>]</span></span> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</span> | class="infobox-data" |1,350&nbsp;m (4,430&nbsp;ft) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Mouth | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambezi]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</div> | class="infobox-data" |near Chirundu, Southern Province, [[Zambia]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;coordinates</div> | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kafue_River&params=15.9429_S_28.9143_E_type:river_region:ZM <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">15°56′34″S</span> <span class="longitude">28°54′51″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">15.9429°S 28.9143°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-15.9429; 28.9143</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kafue_River&params=15.9429_S_28.9143_E_type:river_region:ZM <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">15°56′34″S</span> <span class="longitude">28°54′51″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">15.9429°S 28.9143°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-15.9429; 28.9143</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</div> | class="infobox-data" |410&nbsp;m (1,350&nbsp;ft) |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Length | class="infobox-data" |1,576&nbsp;km (979&nbsp;mi) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; ">Basin size</div> | class="infobox-data" |155,000&nbsp;km² (60,000&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) |- style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Discharge | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;average</span> | class="infobox-data" |320&nbsp;m³/s (11,000&nbsp;cu&nbsp;ft/s) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Basin&nbsp;features |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span class="nowrap">River system</span> | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambezi]] |} [[Category:Short description matches Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 1ow3nfe2pexi251rwexcux6n2lkoozg 100395 100326 2026-06-05T21:28:48Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1350769859|Kafue River]]" 100395 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Kafue |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Kafue_river02.jpg|frameless]]<div class="infobox-caption">Kafue River, Chamufumbu, near Lubungu Pontoon, Zambia</div> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Kafue_OSM.svg|276x276px]]<div class="infobox-caption">The Kafue River Basin</div> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Location |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambia]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |City | class="infobox-data" |[[Kitwe]], [[Mazabuka]], [[Kafue| Kafue Town]] |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Physical&nbsp;characteristics |- style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Source | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Zambian border with the Democratic Republic of Congo northwest of Kipushi, North-Western Province, [[Zambia]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;coordinates</span> | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kafue_River&params=11_36_S_27_12_E_type:river_region:ZM <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">11°36′S</span> <span class="longitude">27°12′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">11.600°S 27.200°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-11.600; 27.200</span></span></span>]</span></span> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</span> | class="infobox-data" |1,350&nbsp;m (4,430&nbsp;ft) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Mouth | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambezi]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</div> | class="infobox-data" |near Chirundu, Southern Province, [[Zambia]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;coordinates</div> | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kafue_River&params=15.9429_S_28.9143_E_type:river_region:ZM <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">15°56′34″S</span> <span class="longitude">28°54′51″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">15.9429°S 28.9143°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-15.9429; 28.9143</span></span></span>]</span></span><indicator name="coordinates"><span id="coordinates">[[Geographic coordinate system|Coordinates]]: <templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kafue_River&params=15.9429_S_28.9143_E_type:river_region:ZM <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">15°56′34″S</span> <span class="longitude">28°54′51″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xfeff; / &#xfeff;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">15.9429°S 28.9143°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xfeff; / <span class="geo">-15.9429; 28.9143</span></span></span>]</span>[[Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas]]</span></indicator> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</div> | class="infobox-data" |410&nbsp;m (1,350&nbsp;ft) |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Length | class="infobox-data" |1,576&nbsp;km (979&nbsp;mi) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; ">Basin size</div> | class="infobox-data" |155,000&nbsp;km² (60,000&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) |- style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Discharge | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;average</span> | class="infobox-data" |320&nbsp;m³/s (11,000&nbsp;cu&nbsp;ft/s) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Basin&nbsp;features |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span class="nowrap">River system</span> | class="infobox-data" |[[Zambezi]] |} [[File:Kafue_River_Course2.png|right|thumb|262x262px|De Kafue River (red) den part of de Zambezi River (blue)]] [[File:Kafue_river_as_seen_from_Kafue_bridge.jpg|thumb|262x262px|Kafue river from de Kafue bridge]] De 1,576 kilometres (979 mi) long '''Kafue River''' be de longest river wey dey lie wholly within Zambia.<ref name="kambole">{{Cite journal |last=Kambole |first=Michael |year=2003 |title=Managing the water quality of the Kafue River |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576701/Kambole_2003_Managing_the.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Physics and Chemistry of the Earth |volume=28 |issue=20–27 |pages=1105–1109 |bibcode=2003PCE....28.1105K |doi=10.1016/j.pce.2003.08.031 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820094303/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576701/Kambole_2003_Managing_the.pdf |archive-date=20 August 2014 |access-date=19 August 2014}}</ref> Ein water be used for irrigation den for generating hydroelectric power.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kafue River |url=https://www.zambiatourism.com/destinations/rivers/kafue/}}</ref> E be de largest tributary of de [[Zambezi]],<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRICA/Resources/Zambezi_MSIOA_-_Vol_1_-_Summary_Report.pdf |title=The Zambezi River Basin A Multi-Sector Investment Opportunities Analysis |author=The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank |author-link=worldbank.org |year=2010}}</ref> den of [[Zambia]] ein principal rivers, e be de most central den de most urban. More dan 50% of Zambia ein population live insyd de Kafue River Basin den of dese around 65% be urban.<ref name="kambole" /> E get a mean flow rate of 320 cubic metres per second (11,000 cu ft/s) thru ein lower half, plus high seasonal variations. De river dey discharge 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) per year into de [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]].<ref name="AAAS2">[http://www.aaas.org/international/ehn/waterpop/zambia.htm American Association for the Advancement of Science website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001184900/http://www.aaas.org/international/ehn/waterpop/zambia.htm|date=1 October 2013}}: H N. Weza Chabwela & Wanga Mumba, "Integrating Water Conservation and Population Strategies on the Kafue Flats", Report of a Workshop on Water and Population Dynamics, Montreal, Canada, October 1996.</ref> == Course == === Sources === De Kafue River dey rise at an elevation of 1,350 metres (4,430 ft) on de relatively flat plateau just south de border between [[Zambia]] den de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] 120 kilometres (75 mi) north-west of Chingola insyd de Copperbelt Province. De source of de Kafue River be insyd de North-western Province of Zambia. De area be Miombo woodland on de Congo-Zambezi watershed, plus chaw branching dambos wey dey lie 10 to 20 metres (33 to 66 ft) lower dan de highest ground, wey dey produce a very gently undulating topography. De river dey start as a trickle from de marshy dambos (de Munyanshi Swamp be a tributary) den plus little slope to speed up river flow, e dey meander south-eastwards sluggishly den within 50 kilometres (31 mi) get de character of a mature river. De area dey receive about 1,200 millimetres (47 in) of rain insyd de rainy season, den de river ein channel soon dey reach 100 metres (330 ft) wide plus a floodplain of fluvial dambos 1 to 2 kilometres (0.62 to 1.24 mi) wide.<ref name="Google2">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 1 March 2007.</ref> == References == [[Category:Short description matches Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] lvuiywaznwruj7i47b3iclk32swepy2 14 27242 100329 2026-06-05T19:14:18Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 100329 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27243 100330 2026-06-05T19:14:41Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 100330 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27244 100331 2026-06-05T19:15:54Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 100331 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27245 100332 2026-06-05T19:16:58Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 100332 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27246 100333 2026-06-05T19:17:11Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 100333 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27247 100334 2026-06-05T19:18:39Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 100334 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27248 100335 2026-06-05T19:19:15Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 100335 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27249 100336 2026-06-05T19:19:27Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 100336 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27250 100337 2026-06-05T19:46:05Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1357628095|African Great Lakes]]" 100337 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:African_Great_Lakes.svg|thumb|De African Great Lakes system, insyd blue]] [[File:MapGreatRiftValley.png|thumb|Map of larger region wey dey include de East African Rift den de entire so-called Great Rift Valley]] De '''African Great Lakes''' (Swahili: ''Maziwa Makuu''; Kinyarwanda: ''Ibiyaga bigari'') be a series of lakes wey dey constitute de part of de Rift Valley lakes insyd den around de East African Rift. De series dey include [[Lake Victoria]], de second-largest freshwater lake insyd de world by area; [[Lake Tanganyika]], de world ein second-largest freshwater lake by volume den depth; Lake Malawi, de world ein fourth-largest freshwater lake by volume; den Lake Turkana, de world ein largest permanent desert lake den de world ein largest alkaline lake.<ref name="zambiatour">{{Cite web |title=~ZAMBIA~ |url=http://www.zambiatourism.com/travel/places/tanganyi.htm |access-date=2008-03-14 |publisher=www.zambiatourism.com}}</ref> Collectively, dem dey contain 31,000 km3 (7,400 mi3) of water, wich be more dan either Lake Baikal anaa de North American Great Lakes. Dis total dey constitute about 25% of de planet ein unfrozen surface fresh water. De large rift lakes of Africa be de ancient home of great biodiversity, den 10% of de world ein fish species live insyd dis region. Countries insyd de area wich be bounded by de lakes of de Great Lakes region dey include [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] den [[Zambia]].<ref name="Idnotgalr">{{Cite web |title=International Documentation Network on the Great African Lakes Region |url=http://library.princeton.edu/resource/3870 |access-date=22 November 2013 |publisher=Princeton University Library}}</ref> == Lakes den drainage basins == Dem include de following on chaw lists of de African Great Lakes, dem group by drainage basin. De exact number of lakes dem consider part of de African Great Lakes dey vary by list, den fi include smaller lakes insyd de rift valleys, especially if dem be part of de same drainage basin as de larger lakes, such as Lake Kyoga. === Lakes wey dey drain into de [[White Nile]] === * [[Lake Victoria]] * Lake Kyoga (part of de Great Lakes system buh einself no be a "great lake") * [[Lake Albert (Africa)|Lake Albert]] * [[Lake Edward]] === Lakes wey dey drain into de [[Congo River]] === * [[Lake Tanganyika]] * Lake Kivu * Lake Mweru * Lake Bangweulu === Lake wey dey drain into de Zambezi === * [[Lake Malawi]], via de [[Shire River]] === Lakes plus closed basins === * Lake Turkana * Lake Rukwa == African Great Lakes region == De Great Lakes region (rarely: ''Greater'' Lakes region) dey consist of ten riparian countries: [[Burundi]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], den [[Zambia]].<ref name="Idnotgalr">{{Cite web |title=International Documentation Network on the Great African Lakes Region |url=http://library.princeton.edu/resource/3870 |access-date=22 November 2013 |publisher=Princeton University Library}}</ref> De adjective ''interlacustrine'' ("between lakes") fi refer to de region,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shillington |first=Kevin |author-link=Kevin Shillington |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WixiTjxYdkYC&pg=PA320 |title=Encyclopedia of African History |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-135-45669-6 |page=320 |quote=the fertile corridor of the Great Lakes Region (also called the interlacustrine region)}}</ref> anaa more specifically, de nations anaa area wey be bounded by de lakes.<ref>{{M-W|interlacustrine}} "the region of Africa that is bounded by Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Albert, Edward, and Tanganyika"</ref> De Swahili language be de most commonly spoken language insyd de African Great Lakes region.<ref name="Shema">{{Cite web |last=Shema |first=Rutagengwa Claude |title=Great Lakes Region of Africa – Burundi |url=http://www.author-me.com/nonfiction/greatlakesregion-burundi.htm |access-date=22 November 2013 |publisher=Author-me}}</ref> E sanso dey serve as a national anaa official language of five nations insyd de region: Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, den de Democratic Republic of the Congo. Secof ein high population—dem estimate to be more dan 50 million people insyd 2020<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obiero |first=Kevin |last2=Lawrence |first2=Ted |last3=Ives |first3=Jessica |last4=Smith |first4=Stephanie |last5=Njaya |first5=Friday |last6=Kayanda |first6=Robert |last7=Waidbacher |first7=Herwig |last8=Olago |first8=Dan |last9=Miriti |first9=Evans |last10=Hecky |first10=R. E. |date=2020-10-01 |title=Advancing Africa’s Great Lakes research and academic potential: Answering the call for harmonized, long-term, collaborative networks and partnerships |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S038013302030037X |journal=Journal of Great Lakes Research |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=1240–1250 |doi=10.1016/j.jglr.2020.02.002 |issn=0380-1330}}</ref>—den de agricultural surplus insyd de region, de area cam be organized into a number of small states. De most powerful of dese monarchies be Buganda, Bunyoro, Karagwe, Rwanda, den Burundi. == Climate == De highlands be relatively cool, plus average temperatures wey dey range between 17 °C (63 °F) den 19 °C (66 °F) den abundant rainfall. Major drainage basins dey include those of de Congo-Zaire, Nile, den Zambezi rivers, wich dey drain into de [[Atlantic Ocean]], Mediterranean Sea, den Indian Ocean, respectively. Forests be dominant insyd de lowlands of de Congo-Zaire Basin, while grasslands den savannas (dry grasslands) most be common insyd de southern den eastern highlands. Temperatures insyd de lowlands average about 35 °C (95 °F). Around Lake Turkana, de climate be hot den very dry. A short rainy season insyd October be followed by a longer one from April to May. == Flora den fauna == De Western Rift Valley lakes be freshwater den home to an extraordinary number of endemic species. More than 1,500 cichlid fish species dey live insyd de lakes,<ref name="Turner2001">{{Cite journal |last=Turner |last2=Seehausen |last3=Knight |last4=Allender |last5=Robinson |year=2001 |title=How many species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes? |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=793–806 |bibcode=2001MolEc..10..793T |doi=10.1046/j.1365-294x.2001.01200.x |pmid=11298988 |s2cid=12925712}}</ref> as well as oda fish families. De lakes sanso be important habitats give a number of amphibian species. Nile crocodiles be numerous. Mammals dey include elephants, gorillas den hippopotamus. == References == 071kdzgq3swy8kxq5a8mmyarpfech4d 100338 100337 2026-06-05T20:12:49Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 100338 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:African_Great_Lakes.svg|thumb|De African Great Lakes system, insyd blue]] [[File:MapGreatRiftValley.png|thumb|Map of larger region wey dey include de East African Rift den de entire so-called Great Rift Valley]] De '''African Great Lakes''' (Swahili: ''Maziwa Makuu''; Kinyarwanda: ''Ibiyaga bigari'') be a series of lakes wey dey constitute de part of de Rift Valley lakes insyd den around de East African Rift. De series dey include [[Lake Victoria]], de second-largest freshwater lake insyd de world by area; [[Lake Tanganyika]], de world ein second-largest freshwater lake by volume den depth; Lake Malawi, de world ein fourth-largest freshwater lake by volume; den Lake Turkana, de world ein largest permanent desert lake den de world ein largest alkaline lake.<ref name="zambiatour">{{Cite web |title=~ZAMBIA~ |url=http://www.zambiatourism.com/travel/places/tanganyi.htm |access-date=2008-03-14 |publisher=www.zambiatourism.com}}</ref> Collectively, dem dey contain 31,000 km3 (7,400 mi3) of water, wich be more dan either Lake Baikal anaa de North American Great Lakes. Dis total dey constitute about 25% of de planet ein unfrozen surface fresh water. De large rift lakes of Africa be de ancient home of great biodiversity, den 10% of de world ein fish species live insyd dis region. Countries insyd de area wich be bounded by de lakes of de Great Lakes region dey include [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] den [[Zambia]].<ref name="Idnotgalr">{{Cite web |title=International Documentation Network on the Great African Lakes Region |url=http://library.princeton.edu/resource/3870 |access-date=22 November 2013 |publisher=Princeton University Library}}</ref> == Lakes den drainage basins == Dem include de following on chaw lists of de African Great Lakes, dem group by drainage basin. De exact number of lakes dem consider part of de African Great Lakes dey vary by list, den fi include smaller lakes insyd de rift valleys, especially if dem be part of de same drainage basin as de larger lakes, such as Lake Kyoga. === Lakes wey dey drain into de [[White Nile]] === * [[Lake Victoria]] * Lake Kyoga (part of de Great Lakes system buh einself no be a "great lake") * [[Lake Albert (Africa)|Lake Albert]] * [[Lake Edward]] === Lakes wey dey drain into de [[Congo River]] === * [[Lake Tanganyika]] * Lake Kivu * Lake Mweru * Lake Bangweulu === Lake wey dey drain into de Zambezi === * [[Lake Malawi]], via de Shire River === Lakes plus closed basins === * Lake Turkana * Lake Rukwa == African Great Lakes region == De Great Lakes region (rarely: ''Greater'' Lakes region) dey consist of ten riparian countries: [[Burundi]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], den [[Zambia]].<ref name="Idnotgalr">{{Cite web |title=International Documentation Network on the Great African Lakes Region |url=http://library.princeton.edu/resource/3870 |access-date=22 November 2013 |publisher=Princeton University Library}}</ref> De adjective ''interlacustrine'' ("between lakes") fi refer to de region,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shillington |first=Kevin |author-link=Kevin Shillington |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WixiTjxYdkYC&pg=PA320 |title=Encyclopedia of African History |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-135-45669-6 |page=320 |quote=the fertile corridor of the Great Lakes Region (also called the interlacustrine region)}}</ref> anaa more specifically, de nations anaa area wey be bounded by de lakes.<ref>[[mwod:interlacustrine|"interlacustrine"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]]&#x20;[https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032680871 1032680871]. "the region of Africa that is bounded by Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Albert, Edward, and Tanganyika"</ref> De Swahili language be de most commonly spoken language insyd de African Great Lakes region.<ref name="Shema">{{Cite web |last=Shema |first=Rutagengwa Claude |title=Great Lakes Region of Africa – Burundi |url=http://www.author-me.com/nonfiction/greatlakesregion-burundi.htm |access-date=22 November 2013 |publisher=Author-me}}</ref> E sanso dey serve as a national anaa official language of five nations insyd de region: Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, den de Democratic Republic of the Congo. Secof ein high population—dem estimate to be more dan 50 million people insyd 2020<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obiero |first=Kevin |last2=Lawrence |first2=Ted |last3=Ives |first3=Jessica |last4=Smith |first4=Stephanie |last5=Njaya |first5=Friday |last6=Kayanda |first6=Robert |last7=Waidbacher |first7=Herwig |last8=Olago |first8=Dan |last9=Miriti |first9=Evans |last10=Hecky |first10=R. E. |date=2020-10-01 |title=Advancing Africa’s Great Lakes research and academic potential: Answering the call for harmonized, long-term, collaborative networks and partnerships |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S038013302030037X |journal=Journal of Great Lakes Research |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=1240–1250 |doi=10.1016/j.jglr.2020.02.002 |issn=0380-1330}}</ref>—den de agricultural surplus insyd de region, de area cam be organized into a number of small states. De most powerful of dese monarchies be Buganda, Bunyoro, Karagwe, Rwanda, den Burundi. == Climate == De highlands be relatively cool, plus average temperatures wey dey range between 17 °C (63 °F) den 19 °C (66 °F) den abundant rainfall. Major drainage basins dey include those of de Congo-Zaire, Nile, den Zambezi rivers, wich dey drain into de [[Atlantic Ocean]], Mediterranean Sea, den Indian Ocean, respectively. Forests be dominant insyd de lowlands of de Congo-Zaire Basin, while grasslands den savannas (dry grasslands) most be common insyd de southern den eastern highlands. Temperatures insyd de lowlands average about 35 °C (95 °F). Around Lake Turkana, de climate be hot den very dry. A short rainy season insyd October be followed by a longer one from April to May. == Flora den fauna == De Western Rift Valley lakes be freshwater den home to an extraordinary number of endemic species. More than 1,500 cichlid fish species dey live insyd de lakes,<ref name="Turner2001">{{Cite journal |last=Turner |last2=Seehausen |last3=Knight |last4=Allender |last5=Robinson |year=2001 |title=How many species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes? |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=793–806 |bibcode=2001MolEc..10..793T |doi=10.1046/j.1365-294x.2001.01200.x |pmid=11298988 |s2cid=12925712}}</ref> as well as oda fish families. De lakes sanso be important habitats give a number of amphibian species. Nile crocodiles be numerous. Mammals dey include elephants, gorillas den hippopotamus. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *{{cite book |first=Jean-Pierre |last=Chrétien |title=The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History |translator-first=Scott |translator-last=Straus |translator-link=Scott Straus|location=New York |publisher=[[Zone Books]] |year=2006 |isbn=1-890951-35-8 }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:African Great Lakes| ]] [[Category:Regions of Africa]] [[Category:Lakes of Africa|Great Lakes]] [[Category:Lakes of de Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Lake groups]] [[Category:Geography of East Africa]] 18wa8r7sf2eyeo0d1nqpetphcukszfq 100341 100338 2026-06-05T20:17:14Z DaSupremo 9 Add databox 100341 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:African_Great_Lakes.svg|thumb|De African Great Lakes system, insyd blue]] [[File:MapGreatRiftValley.png|thumb|Map of larger region wey dey include de East African Rift den de entire so-called Great Rift Valley]] De '''African Great Lakes''' (Swahili: ''Maziwa Makuu''; Kinyarwanda: ''Ibiyaga bigari'') be a series of lakes wey dey constitute de part of de Rift Valley lakes insyd den around de East African Rift. De series dey include [[Lake Victoria]], de second-largest freshwater lake insyd de world by area; [[Lake Tanganyika]], de world ein second-largest freshwater lake by volume den depth; Lake Malawi, de world ein fourth-largest freshwater lake by volume; den Lake Turkana, de world ein largest permanent desert lake den de world ein largest alkaline lake.<ref name="zambiatour">{{Cite web |title=~ZAMBIA~ |url=http://www.zambiatourism.com/travel/places/tanganyi.htm |access-date=2008-03-14 |publisher=www.zambiatourism.com}}</ref> Collectively, dem dey contain 31,000 km3 (7,400 mi3) of water, wich be more dan either Lake Baikal anaa de North American Great Lakes. Dis total dey constitute about 25% of de planet ein unfrozen surface fresh water. De large rift lakes of Africa be de ancient home of great biodiversity, den 10% of de world ein fish species live insyd dis region. Countries insyd de area wich be bounded by de lakes of de Great Lakes region dey include [[Burundi]], de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] den [[Zambia]].<ref name="Idnotgalr">{{Cite web |title=International Documentation Network on the Great African Lakes Region |url=http://library.princeton.edu/resource/3870 |access-date=22 November 2013 |publisher=Princeton University Library}}</ref> == Lakes den drainage basins == Dem include de following on chaw lists of de African Great Lakes, dem group by drainage basin. De exact number of lakes dem consider part of de African Great Lakes dey vary by list, den fi include smaller lakes insyd de rift valleys, especially if dem be part of de same drainage basin as de larger lakes, such as Lake Kyoga. === Lakes wey dey drain into de [[White Nile]] === * [[Lake Victoria]] * Lake Kyoga (part of de Great Lakes system buh einself no be a "great lake") * [[Lake Albert (Africa)|Lake Albert]] * [[Lake Edward]] === Lakes wey dey drain into de [[Congo River]] === * [[Lake Tanganyika]] * Lake Kivu * Lake Mweru * Lake Bangweulu === Lake wey dey drain into de Zambezi === * [[Lake Malawi]], via de Shire River === Lakes plus closed basins === * Lake Turkana * Lake Rukwa == African Great Lakes region == De Great Lakes region (rarely: ''Greater'' Lakes region) dey consist of ten riparian countries: [[Burundi]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], den [[Zambia]].<ref name="Idnotgalr">{{Cite web |title=International Documentation Network on the Great African Lakes Region |url=http://library.princeton.edu/resource/3870 |access-date=22 November 2013 |publisher=Princeton University Library}}</ref> De adjective ''interlacustrine'' ("between lakes") fi refer to de region,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shillington |first=Kevin |author-link=Kevin Shillington |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WixiTjxYdkYC&pg=PA320 |title=Encyclopedia of African History |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-135-45669-6 |page=320 |quote=the fertile corridor of the Great Lakes Region (also called the interlacustrine region)}}</ref> anaa more specifically, de nations anaa area wey be bounded by de lakes.<ref>[[mwod:interlacustrine|"interlacustrine"]]. ''Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary''. Merriam-Webster. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]]&#x20;[https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032680871 1032680871]. "the region of Africa that is bounded by Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, Albert, Edward, and Tanganyika"</ref> De Swahili language be de most commonly spoken language insyd de African Great Lakes region.<ref name="Shema">{{Cite web |last=Shema |first=Rutagengwa Claude |title=Great Lakes Region of Africa – Burundi |url=http://www.author-me.com/nonfiction/greatlakesregion-burundi.htm |access-date=22 November 2013 |publisher=Author-me}}</ref> E sanso dey serve as a national anaa official language of five nations insyd de region: Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, den de Democratic Republic of the Congo. Secof ein high population—dem estimate to be more dan 50 million people insyd 2020<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Obiero |first=Kevin |last2=Lawrence |first2=Ted |last3=Ives |first3=Jessica |last4=Smith |first4=Stephanie |last5=Njaya |first5=Friday |last6=Kayanda |first6=Robert |last7=Waidbacher |first7=Herwig |last8=Olago |first8=Dan |last9=Miriti |first9=Evans |last10=Hecky |first10=R. E. |date=2020-10-01 |title=Advancing Africa’s Great Lakes research and academic potential: Answering the call for harmonized, long-term, collaborative networks and partnerships |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S038013302030037X |journal=Journal of Great Lakes Research |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=1240–1250 |doi=10.1016/j.jglr.2020.02.002 |issn=0380-1330}}</ref>—den de agricultural surplus insyd de region, de area cam be organized into a number of small states. De most powerful of dese monarchies be Buganda, Bunyoro, Karagwe, Rwanda, den Burundi. == Climate == De highlands be relatively cool, plus average temperatures wey dey range between 17 °C (63 °F) den 19 °C (66 °F) den abundant rainfall. Major drainage basins dey include those of de Congo-Zaire, Nile, den Zambezi rivers, wich dey drain into de [[Atlantic Ocean]], Mediterranean Sea, den Indian Ocean, respectively. Forests be dominant insyd de lowlands of de Congo-Zaire Basin, while grasslands den savannas (dry grasslands) most be common insyd de southern den eastern highlands. Temperatures insyd de lowlands average about 35 °C (95 °F). Around Lake Turkana, de climate be hot den very dry. A short rainy season insyd October be followed by a longer one from April to May. == Flora den fauna == De Western Rift Valley lakes be freshwater den home to an extraordinary number of endemic species. More than 1,500 cichlid fish species dey live insyd de lakes,<ref name="Turner2001">{{Cite journal |last=Turner |last2=Seehausen |last3=Knight |last4=Allender |last5=Robinson |year=2001 |title=How many species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes? |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=793–806 |bibcode=2001MolEc..10..793T |doi=10.1046/j.1365-294x.2001.01200.x |pmid=11298988 |s2cid=12925712}}</ref> as well as oda fish families. De lakes sanso be important habitats give a number of amphibian species. Nile crocodiles be numerous. Mammals dey include elephants, gorillas den hippopotamus. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *{{cite book |first=Jean-Pierre |last=Chrétien |title=The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History |translator-first=Scott |translator-last=Straus |translator-link=Scott Straus|location=New York |publisher=[[Zone Books]] |year=2006 |isbn=1-890951-35-8 }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:African Great Lakes| ]] [[Category:Regions of Africa]] [[Category:Lakes of Africa|Great Lakes]] [[Category:Lakes of de Great Rift Valley]] [[Category:Lake groups]] [[Category:Geography of East Africa]] 43lu437b2g40twq0urul1xqboksjdxa 14 27251 100339 2026-06-05T20:15:53Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 100339 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27252 100340 2026-06-05T20:16:04Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 100340 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27253 100399 2026-06-06T06:21:18Z ~2026-33565-53 6290 Updated Swazer article with improved formatting, added citations, and corrected discography information using MusicBrainz source. 100399 wikitext text/x-wiki Swazer David Chinonso Nwaeze (born 26 May 2007), known professionally as Swazer, is a Nigerian singer-songwriter and recording artist. He is known for his blend of Afrobeats, Afro-soul, R&B and contemporary African pop music.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Swartz |first=A. |date=2002-01 |title=MusicBrainz: a semantic Web service |url=https://doi.org/10.1109/5254.988466 |journal=IEEE Intelligent Systems |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=76–77 |doi=10.1109/5254.988466 |issn=1541-1672}}</ref> Early life David Chinonso Nwaeze was born on 26 May 2007 in Nigeria. He developed an interest in music during his childhood and participated in musical activities throughout his school years, including serving as a choir leader.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Verifying your browser |url=https://musicbrainz.org/artist/10d770b3-e89a-47a5-a01f-550a9531fcfe |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=musicbrainz.org}}</ref> Career Swazer began pursuing music professionally in the mid-2020s, releasing independent recordings across digital streaming platforms. His music incorporates elements of Afrobeats, Afro-soul, R&B and hip-hop.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Verifying your browser |url=https://musicbrainz.org/artist/10d770b3-e89a-47a5-a01f-550a9531fcfe |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=musicbrainz.org}}</ref> In 2025, he released his debut single, "Hustle", which introduced his motivational songwriting style and energetic vocal delivery. The song was later followed by "Hustle (Speed Up)".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Verifying your browser |url=https://musicbrainz.org/artist/10d770b3-e89a-47a5-a01f-550a9531fcfe |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=musicbrainz.org}}</ref> Later in 2025, Swazer released "Truth or Dare", a romantic Afrobeats single exploring themes of attraction, vulnerability and emotional uncertainty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Verifying your browser |url=https://musicbrainz.org/artist/10d770b3-e89a-47a5-a01f-550a9531fcfe |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=musicbrainz.org}}</ref> Musical style and influences Swazer's music combines Afrobeats rhythms with R&B melodies and contemporary pop influences. He has cited artists such as Ayra Starr, Tems, Qing Madi, Chris Brown, Wizkid, Davido, Burna Boy, Rema and SZA among his inspirations.<ref>{{Citation |last=Espinosa-Anke |first=Luis |title=ELMDist: A Vector Space Model with Words and MusicBrainz Entities |date=2017 |work=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |pages=355–366 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70407-4_44 |access-date=2026-06-06 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-70406-7 |last2=Oramas |first2=Sergio |last3=Saggion |first3=Horacio |last4=Serra |first4=Xavier}}</ref> Discography Singles 2025 • Hustle • Hustle (Speed Up) • Truth or Dare Artistry Swazer is recognized for emotionally driven songwriting and youthful themes centered on ambition, relationships, personal growth and self-expression. Personal life Outside music, Swazer has expressed interests in cooking, dancing and content creation. His favorite foods include beans and coconut rice, while black and gold are among his preferred colors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Verifying your browser |url=https://musicbrainz.org/artist/10d770b3-e89a-47a5-a01f-550a9531fcfe |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=musicbrainz.org}}</ref> See also • Nigerian music • Afrobeats • Contemporary R&B External links Official Instagram [https://www.instagram.com/swazer__?igsh=ZHQxMW53cjJxaWIy Instagram] Official [https://www.tiktok.com/@swazer00?_t=ZM-8y3QJvlcAye&_r=1 TikTok] Official YouTube [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCFge2YrUN6hrSUtDwXZEoKQ YouTube] Official [https://on.soundcloud.com/STPOK1sIEBD2ezq558 SoundCloud] Official [https://open.spotify.com/artist/0vPQD1IP8c3G6LOJ7LszxW?si=AA9m3rgPQICyIeIwM6kcyQ Spotify] official Apple Music [https://music.apple.com/ng/artist/swazer/1821835149?ls Apple Music] official Audiomack [https://audiomack.com/swazer-1 Audiomack] official Facebook [https://www.facebook.com/Swazer1 Facebook] Genius [https://genius.com/Swazer Genius lyrics] s6n78bq7bmrrov2tnsbvccl10uu3myi 0 27254 100441 2026-06-06T11:42:22Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100441 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Mweru''' (dem sanso spell am ''Mwelu'', ''Mwero'') (French: ''Lac Moero'', Swahili: ''Ziwa Mweru'') be a [[:en:Freshwater|freshwater]] [[:en:Lake|lake]] for de longest arm of [[:en:Africa|Africa]] ein second-longest river top, de [[:en:Congo_River|Congo]]. 7oy6920ae71bi5fo0um2t45jhiet6tk 100442 100441 2026-06-06T11:43:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100442 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Mweru''' (dem sanso spell am ''Mwelu'', ''Mwero'') (French: ''Lac Moero'', Swahili: ''Ziwa Mweru'') be a [[:en:Freshwater|freshwater]] [[:en:Lake|lake]] for de longest arm of [[:en:Africa|Africa]] ein second-longest river top, de [[:en:Congo_River|Congo]]. Dem locate am for de border between [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]] den [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] top, e dey make up {{convert|110|km}} of de total length of de Congo, wey dey lie between ein [[:en:Luapula_River|Luapula River]] (upstream) den [[:en:Luvua_River|Luvua River]] (downstream) segments. h385zib9c9golckmx4uqede9gzcx2xe 100443 100442 2026-06-06T11:44:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100443 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Mweru''' (dem sanso spell am ''Mwelu'', ''Mwero'') (French: ''Lac Moero'', Swahili: ''Ziwa Mweru'') be a [[:en:Freshwater|freshwater]] [[:en:Lake|lake]] for de longest arm of [[:en:Africa|Africa]] ein second-longest river top, de [[:en:Congo_River|Congo]]. Dem locate am for de border between [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]] den [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] top, e dey make up {{convert|110|km}} of de total length of de Congo, wey dey lie between ein [[:en:Luapula_River|Luapula River]] (upstream) den [[:en:Luvua_River|Luvua River]] (downstream) segments.<ref name="Google">[[Google Earth]] accessed 29 March 2007. When in flood [[Lake Bangweulu]] and its swamps may temporarily have a larger area, but not a larger volume.</ref> 6btxo8vcxpn7n48gdht95d7ahtenf25 100444 100443 2026-06-06T11:45:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100444 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Mweru''' (dem sanso spell am ''Mwelu'', ''Mwero'') (French: ''Lac Moero'', Swahili: ''Ziwa Mweru'') be a [[:en:Freshwater|freshwater]] [[:en:Lake|lake]] for de longest arm of [[:en:Africa|Africa]] ein second-longest river top, de [[:en:Congo_River|Congo]]. Dem locate am for de border between [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]] den [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] top, e dey make up {{convert|110|km}} of de total length of de Congo, wey dey lie between ein [[:en:Luapula_River|Luapula River]] (upstream) den [[:en:Luvua_River|Luvua River]] (downstream) segments.<ref name="Google">[[Google Earth]] accessed 29 March 2007. When in flood [[Lake Bangweulu]] and its swamps may temporarily have a larger area, but not a larger volume.</ref> == References == 96gjug8tiqx7wa9awyqkjtdf9crwq64 100445 100444 2026-06-06T11:49:17Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100445 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Mweru''' (dem sanso spell am ''Mwelu'', ''Mwero'') (French: ''Lac Moero'', Swahili: ''Ziwa Mweru'') be a [[:en:Freshwater|freshwater]] [[:en:Lake|lake]] for de longest arm of [[:en:Africa|Africa]] ein second-longest river top, de [[:en:Congo_River|Congo]]. Dem locate am for de border between [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]] den [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] top, e dey make up {{convert|110|km}} of de total length of de Congo, wey dey lie between ein [[:en:Luapula_River|Luapula River]] (upstream) den [[:en:Luvua_River|Luvua River]] (downstream) segments.<ref name="Google">[[Google Earth]] accessed 29 March 2007. When in flood [[Lake Bangweulu]] and its swamps may temporarily have a larger area, but not a larger volume.</ref> '''Mweru''' dey mean 'lake' for a number of [[:en:Bantu_languages|Bantu languages]], so dem often refer am as just 'Mweru'. == References == oh2h4mkf6t957pn7yl2n06iy32epkmm 100446 100445 2026-06-06T11:52:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 100446 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lake Mweru''' (dem sanso spell am ''Mwelu'', ''Mwero'') (French: ''Lac Moero'', Swahili: ''Ziwa Mweru'') be a [[:en:Freshwater|freshwater]] [[:en:Lake|lake]] for de longest arm of [[:en:Africa|Africa]] ein second-longest river top, de [[:en:Congo_River|Congo]]. Dem locate am for de border between [[:en:Zambia|Zambia]] den [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of]] [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|de Congo]] top, e dey make up {{convert|110|km}} of de total length of de Congo, wey dey lie between ein [[:en:Luapula_River|Luapula River]] (upstream) den [[:en:Luvua_River|Luvua River]] (downstream) segments.<ref name="Google">[[Google Earth]] accessed 29 March 2007. When in flood [[Lake Bangweulu]] and its swamps may temporarily have a larger area, but not a larger volume.</ref> '''Mweru''' dey mean 'lake' for a number of [[:en:Bantu_languages|Bantu languages]], so dem often refer am as just 'Mweru'.<ref name="Anderson">The ''[[Northern Rhodesia Journal]]'' online at NZRAM.org: J B W Anderson: "Kilwa Island and the Luapula." Vol II, No. 3 pp87–88 (1954)</ref> == References == axgs10b2scjaex6kop2m0x82gnaqq1f